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^ JOURJV4, 

OF  the 

pRANKLiN  Institute 

DEVOTED  TO 

HSsSsiense  and  the  Meahani® 


EDITED  BY 

Dr.  H.  W.  Jayne,  Chairman,  Mr.  Edwin  S.  Baixh, 
Dr.  Persifor  Frazer,  Mr.  Louis  E.  Lew,  Prof. 
Coleman  Sellers,  E.D.,  Committee  on  Publications  ; 
with  the  Assistance  of 

Dr.  Wm.  H.  Wahl,  Secretary  of  the  Institute. 


VoL  CLX,  No.  4 80th  YEAR  OCTOBER,  igos 


CONTENTS. 

Electrical  Section  : 

The  Alternating  Current  Generator.  David  B.  Ruslimore 253 

Chemical  Section  : 

Mica  and  the  Mica  Industry.  George  Wetinore  Colies,  {to  be  continued)  275 

■^Sanitary  Protection  of  Water  Supplies.  Kenneth  Allen  . . 297 

Discussion  : Dr.  Henry  Leffman 323 

Notes  and  Comments  ; 

The  Value  of  Theory 251 

German  Shipbuilding  in  1904 251 

Reinforced  Concrete  Railway  Ties 252 

Smoke-Preventing  Device 252 

Allaying  the  Dust  Nuisance  on  Highroads.  . -274 

Effect  of  High  Temperature  on  the  Strength  of  Steel 274 

Healing  Qualities  of  Egg  Membrane 296 

Preparation  of  Railway  Cross-ties • • 296 

The  Disposition  of  the  Boston  “Franklin  Fund” 296 

Artificial  Silk'. . 323 

Book  Notices  : . , ' 325 

The  Franklin  Institute: 

The  Telautograph.  H.  L.  English 241 

Proceedings  of  the  Stated  Meeting  held  Wednesday,  September  20,  1905  . 326 
Committee  on  Science  and  the  Arts 326 


PUBLIS  lED  BY  THE  FRANKLIN  INSTITUTE,  Philadelphia.  (B) 


Addres*!  business  correspondence,  remittances,  etc.,  to  The  ACTUARY  ; editorial  communi- 
cations to  1 HE  Secretary. 


HouisoH  8t  HOCUS 

Counsellors  at  Law 
SOLICITORS  OF  PATENTS 


PHILADELPHIA  OFFICE 

REMOVED  TO 

West  End  Building,  32  South  Broad  Street 
NEW  YORK,  38  Park  Row 
WASHINGTON,  918  F Street 


METALLOGRAPHY 


TAUGHT  BY  CORRESPONDENCE  IN  SEVENTEEN  LESSONS 


I The  Microstructure  of  Pure  Metals 

II  The  Microstructure  of  Pure  Iron 

III  The  Microstructure  of  Commercial  Wrought  Iron 

IV  The  Microstructure  of  Commercial  Wrought  Iron  (Continued) 

V The  Microstructure  of  Low-Carbon  Steel 

VI  The  Microstructure  of  Medium  High-Carbon  Steel 

VII  The  Microstructure  of  High-Carbon  Steel 

VIII  The  Influence  of  Carbonupon  the  Structure  of  Steel 

IX  The  Microstructure  of  Cast  Iron 

X The  Microstructure  of  Malleable  Cast  Iron 

XI  The  Thermal  Critical  Points  of  Steel 

XII  The  Thermal  Critical  Points  of  Steel  (Continued) 

XIII  The  Thermal  Critical  Points  ofSteel  (Concluded) 

XIV  The  Structure  of  Steel  Castings  and  the  Influence  of  Hot  and  Cold  Work 

upon  the  Structure  of  Steel 

XV  The  Influence  of  Heat  and  of  Rate  of  Cooling  upon  the  Structure  of  Steel 

XVI  The  Annealing  of  Steel 

XVII  The  Hardening  and  Tempering  of  Steel 


For  farther  p^^rHculars  goStOH  Tcstillg  LabOfatieS 

ALBERT  SAUVEUR,  Hanager 
446  Tremont  Street 


BOSTON,  HASS. 


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1 


CHEMICAL 

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We  carry  in  stock  and  have  always  ready  for 
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to  and  correspond  with  others.  Our  line  of 

CHEMICALS 

is  drawn  from  the  best  manufacturers  at  home  and 
abroad  and  is  selected  with  special  reference  to 
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Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute — Advertisements. 

INDEX  TO  ADVERTISERS 


PROFESSIONAL  CARDS,  PAGE  XVIII 


Page 


American  Gas  Furnace  Co v 

Association  of  Engineering  So- 
cieties Journal x 

Barnett,  G.  & H.  Co.,  File  Works, 
Philadelphia,  Fourth  cover  page 

Bausch  & Lomb  Optical  Co i 

Borgner,  Cyrus,  Fire  Bricks, 
etc.,  Philadelphia xi 


Boyden  Premium,  The,  Frank- 
lin Institute viii 

Chester  Steel  Castings  Co.,  Phil- 
adelphia   V 

Harrisburg  Foundry  and  Ma- 
chine Works,  Engines, 

Third  cover  page 

Harrison  Safety  Boiler  Works, 
Heaters Third  cover  page 

Hartford  Steam  Boiler  Inspec- 
tion and  Insurance  Com- 
pany, Hartford,  Conn xi 


Page 


Morse,  Williams  & Co.,  Eleva- 
tors, Phila.  and  New  York.xiii 

Niles-Bement-Pond  Co iv 

Olsen,  Tinius  & Co.,  Testing 
and  Hydraulic  Machinery.,  .xiii 

Penn  Mutual v 

Phila.  Commercial  Museum, 


Third  cover  page 

Reeves,  Paul  S.  & Son,  Manga- 
nese Bronze xii 

Riehle  Bros.  Testing  Machine 

Co  XVIII 

Rue  Manufacturing  Co xiii 

Schutte  & Koerting  Co.,  En- 
gineers and  Machinists,  Phil- 
adelphia   XI 

Scott  Legacy  Medal  and  Pre- 
mium, John,  The  Franklin 
Institute  xx 

Sellers,  Wm.  & Co.,  Machinists, 
Philadelphia  vi 


Howson  & Howson,  Patent  So- 
licitors, Phila.  and  Washing- 
ton  Second  cover  page 

Link-Belt  Engineering  Co.,  Ele- 


vators, etc X 

Living  Age xiv 

Lonergan,  J.  E.  & Co.,  Oilers, 
etc.,  Philadelphia xiii 


Southwark  Foundry  and  Ma- 
chine Co V 

Spon  & Chamberlain,  Publish- 
ers, New  York ix 

Standard  Steel  Works,  R.  R. 
Tires  xvii 

Standard  Typewriter  Exchange. xvii 

Stern,  Edward  & Co.,  Inc.,  Print- 
ers, Philadelphia vii 


McCaffrey  File  Co., 

Fourth  cover  page 

Metallography. . .Second  cover  page 

Moore  & White  Co.,  The,  Pa- 
per-Making Machinery xii 

Morris,  I.  P.  Co.,  Machinery 

Back  cover 


Tabor  Mfg.  Co.,  Molding  Ma- 


chines   xii 

Troemner,  Henry,  Scales xvii 

United  Gas  Improvement  Co xv 

Weston,  Chas.  J.,  Scientific  In- 
struments   XIII 

Williams  Typewriter xix 


Please  mention  this  Journal  in  correspondence  with  advertisers. 


Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute — Advertisements. 


Ill 


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MEETINGS 

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Board  of  managers,  Second  Wednesday  of  each  month,  1.30  P.  M. 
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"Commemorative  Exercises  of  the 
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OF 

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has  been  published. 

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SOLE  BUILDERS  OF  THE 


ADAPTED  JO  EVERY  CLASS  OE  SERVICE 


BLOWING  ENGINES. 

WEISS  CONDENSING  PLANTS. 


The  Fuel  Gas  System  of  the 

AMERICAN  GAS  FURNACE  CO.” 

Includes 

Automatic  Qas  Generators 

Gas  Blast  Furnaces 

Automatic  Heating  Machines 

Positive  Pressure  Blowers,  Etc.,  Etc. 

And  every  requisite  for  a thoroughly  effective,  Systematic  and  Economical  Use  of  Heat  in  all 
kinds  of  work.  Hundreds  of  first-class  factories  have  it  in  use.  Catalogues  and  pamphlets 
on  application  to  AMERICAN  OAS  FURNACE  CO.,  23  John  Street,  New  York  City, 


STEEL 

CASTINGS 


OPEN  HEARTH 

description, 

for  Electrical  Machinery  ; Dredging  Rolling 
and  Sugar  Mill  Machinery  , Eocomolive,  Rail- 
road and  Bridge  Work,  ete. 

Steel  Castings  of  all 
shapes  and  sizes,  from 
I lb.  up.  Superior  for 
Crankshafts,  Gearing  and  other  pnrpo'^es  where 
great  wearing  results  are  required. 

Correspondence  Solicited. 


McHAFFlE 


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WORKS.  CHESTER.  PA.  OFFICE,  407  SANSOM  ST.,  PHILA.,  PA- 


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IS  SECURED  BY  THE 

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PHlliADELiPHlA.  PA. 


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H.  K.  Barrows.  Boston  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 

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Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute — Advertisements. 


The  Boyden  Premium 


URIAH  A.  BOYDEN,  ESQ.,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  has  deposited  with  the 

FRANKI.IN  Institute:  the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars,  to  be  awarded  as  a 
premium  to 

“Any  resident  of  North  America  who  shall  determine 
by  experiment  whether  all  rays  of  light,  and 
other  physical  rays,  are  or  are  not  trans- 
mitted with  the  same  velocity.”* 

The  following  conditions  have  been  established  for  the  award  of  this 
Premium  : 

1.  Any  resident  of  North  America,  or  of  the  West  India  Islands,  may  be  a competitor  for  the 
Premium;  the  Southern  boundary  of  Mexico  being  considered  as  the  southern  limit  of  North 
America. 

2.  Each  competitor  must  transmit  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Franklix  Institute  a memoir, 
d escribing  in  detail  the  apparatus,  the  mode  of  experimenting,  and  the  results  ; and  all  memoirs 
received  by  him  before  the  first  day  of  January,  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  six  will,  as  soon 
as  possible  after  this  date,  be  transmitted  to  the  Committee  of  Judges. 

3.  The  Board  of  Managers  of  the  Franklin  Institute  shall,  before  the  first  day  of  January, 
one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  six,  select  three  citizens  of  the  United  States  of  competent  scientific 
ability,  to  whom  the  memoir  shall  be  referred;  and  the  said  Judges  shall  examine  the  memoirs 
and  report  to  the  Franklin  Institute  whether,  in  their  opinion  any,  and,  if  so,  which  of  the 
memoirs  is  worthy  of  the  Premium.  And,  on  their  report,  the  Fr.a.nklin  Institute  shall  decide 
whether  the  Premium  shall  be  awarded  as  recommended  bj'  the  Judges. 

4.  Every  memoir  shall  be  anonymous,  but  shall  containsome  motto  or  sign  by  which  it  can  be 
recognized  and  designated,  and  shall  be  accompanied  bj'  a sealed  envelope,  endorsed  on  the  outside 
with  some  motto  or  sign,  and  containing  the  name  and  address  of  the  author  of  the  memoir.  It 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Franklin  Institute  to  keep  these  envelopes  securely 
and  unopened  until  the  Judges  shall  have  finished  their  examination  ; when,  should  the  Judges 
be  of  opinion  that  any  one  of  the  memoirs  is  worthy  of  the  Premium,  the  corresponding  envelope 
shall  be  opened,  and  the  name  of  the  author  communicated  to  the  Institute.  The  sealed 
envelopes  accompanying  unsuccessful  memoirs,  will  be  destroyed  unopened,  in  the  presence  of  the 
Board  of  Managers. 

5.  Should  the  Judges  think  proper,  they  may  require  the  experiments  described  in  any  of  the 
memoirs  to  be  repeated  in  their  presence. 

6.  The  memoirs  presented  for  the  Premium  shall  become  the  property  of  the  Franklin 
Institute,  and  shall  be  published  as  it  may  direct. 


The  problem  has  been  more  specifically  defined  by  the  Board  of  Managers,  as  follows 
“ Whether  or  not  all  rays  in  the  spectrum  known  at  the  time  the  offer  was  made,  namely,  March 
23,  1859,  and  comprised  between  the  lowest  frequency  known  thermal  rays  in  the  infra-red,  and  the 
highest  frequency  known  rays  in  the  ultra-violet,  which  in  the  opinion  of  the  Committee  lie  between 
the  approximate  frequencies  of  2 x lo’  ^ double  vibrations  per  second  in  the  infra-red,  and  8 x 10^  ^ 
in  the  ultra-violet,  travel  through  free  space  with  the  same  velocity,” 


JOURNAL 

OF  THE 

Franklin  Institute 

OF  THK  STATK  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 

FOR  THE  PROMOTION  OF  THE  MECHANIC  ARTS 

VoL.  CLX,  No.  4 8oth  YEAR  OCTOBER,  1905 

The  Franklin  Institute  is  not  responsible  for  the  statements 
and  opinions  advanced  by  contributors  to  the  Journal. 

FRANKLIN  INSTITUTE. 

Stated  Meeting,  held  Wednesday,  MareJi  15,  1905. 

The  Telautograph* 

By  H.  I.  English. 


[This  paper  includes  a brief  account  of  the  invention  and  development  of  the  Graj"  telauto- 
graph, and  deals  specially  with  the  instrument  in  its  present  commercial  form.— The  Editor.] 

Electrical  transmission  of  handwriting  has  engaged  a certain 
amount  of  attention  ever  since  telegraphic  transmission  or 
printed  characters  was  successfully  carried  out. 

As  early  as  1886  Cowper  and  Robertson  brought  the  writing 
telegraph  into  a fairly  operative  form.  This  instrument  was 
adapted  to  operate  several  receivers  in  series  in  “reporting” 
service,  where  the  regular  news  ticker  service  was  unobtainable 
or  too  expensive.  The  system  was  put  to  some  use,  chiefly  in 
Pittsburgh  and  vicinity. 

The  writing  was  received  on  a paper  tape,  advanced  at  con- 
stant speed  by  clockwork.  No  pen-lifting  device  was  provided 
VoE.  CLX.  No.  958. 


16 


242 


IJ.F.I., 


English: 

and  the  woials  were  connected  tog'ether  l)y  a mark  of  the  j^en, 
making-  hgnrework  poor.  As  the  characters  were  formed  l)y 
the  coml)ination  of  the  ])en  motion  and  the  ta})e  motion,  a cer- 
tain amoimt  of  ])ractice  and  skill  was  required  to  ])roduce  a legi- 
ble message. 

The  electrical  features  were  as  follows:  Two  indei)endent  va- 
riable currents  were  obtained  from  the  transmitter  ;these  passed 
over  lines  to  the  receiver  where  they  traversed  two  electromag- 
nets set  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  so  influenced  their  ef- 
fect upon  a common  armature  as  to  cause  the  receiver-])en  rod 
to  ])roduce  the  motion  of  the  transmitter  pencil. 

It  will  be  noted  that  this  ])rinciple  is  nearly  identical  with 
that  of  Gruhn’s  Telechirograph,  recently  described  in  the  tech- 
nical press,  the  main  differences  being  that  the  telechirograph 
writes  upon  a larger  field  and  uses  a beam  of  light,  and  photo- 
gra])hic  record  instead  of  a pen  with  ink  record. 

Following  the  writing  telegraph.  Professor  Elisha  Gray  con- 
structed. at  his  Chicago  laboratory,  an  instrument  which  wrote 
upon  stationary  paper,  and  which  he  called  a telautograph.  It 
recjuired  four  line  wares  and  operated  as  follow-s : By  means  of 
cords  and  drums  the  motions  of  the  transmitting  stylus  were 
resolved  into  tw-o  mechanical  interrupters  in  the  primary  cir- 
cuits of  tw^o  induction  coils.  The  relations  of  the  parts  were 
such  that  a motion  of  the  transmitting  stylus  amounting  to 
one-fortieth  of  an  inch  caused  a complete  make-and-break  at 
one  or  both  of  the  interrupters. 

The  line  currents  w^ere  the  impulses  produced  in  the  secon- 
dary circuits  of  the  induction  coils.  These  impulses  passed 
over  lines  to  tw^o  electromechanical  escapements  in  the  re- 
ceiver. By  means  of  cords  and  drums  their  motions  were  com- 
bined and  caused  to  act  upon  the  receiver  pen.  By  the  use  of 
relays  and  condensers  and  a local  battery  at  each  receiver  the 
])a])er  w-as  advanced  when  necessary  and  the  pen  lifted  from 
and  low^ered  to  the  paper.  The  mechanical  difficulties  met 
w-ith  in  perfecting'  this  instrument  w'ere  very  great,  and  in  the 
apparatus  exhibited  at  the  A\Trld's  Fair,  in  Chicago,  in  1893, 
the  escapement  mechanism  w^as  brought  to  a perfection 
thought  impossible  of  attainment  only  a short  time  before. 
The  w-riting  show'ed  a saw'-tooth  or  step-by-step  character,  due 
to  the  action  of  the  escapements.  The  instrument  w'as  aband- 


October,  1905. J 


243 


The  Telautograph. 

oned  on  account  of  the  number  of  line  wires  required,  limited 
speed,  numerous  fine  adjustments,  and  cost  and  difficulty  of 
manufacture. 

In  1893,  while  still  working  at  the  escapement  device.  Pro- 
fessor Gray  patented  a variable-current  instrument,  using  two 
line  wires,  which  worked,  in  a general  way,  like  the  present 
telautograph.  The  motions  of  the  transmitter  pencil  were  re- 
solved into  two  components  which  were  used  to  vary  two  line 
currents,  the  variable  resistances  being  carbon  rods  dipped  into 
tubes  of  mercury.  The  receiver  contained  two  D'Arsonval 
movements,  to  the  moving  elements  of  which  the  pen-arms 
were  attached.  Professor  Gray  never  developed  this  instru- 
ment much  beyond  the  laboratory  stage,  probably  on  account 
of  his  firm  belief  in  the  escapement  type. 

Foster  Ritchie,  at  that  time  an  assistant  to  Professor  Gray, 
gave  considerable  attention  to  this  patent  and  perfected  an 
instrument  based  on  it.  He  obtained  a patent  for  improve- 
ments and  has  produced  an  instrument  that  operates  in  a 
fairly  satisfactory  manner  under  certain  favorable  conditions. 

The  telautograph  has  been  brought  to  its  present  state 
chiehy  through  experimental  work  done  by,  or  under  the  per- 
sonal direction  of  Mr.  George  S.  Tiffany,  to  w'hom  several  pat- 
ents for  improvements  have  been  granted.  Mr.  Tiffany’s  in- 
strument operates  on  the  variable-current  principle  and  in- 
cludes a number  of  interesting  features,  among  them  what  may 
he  called  a straight-line  D'Arsonval  movement,  which  is  used 
to  operate  the  receiver. 

The  operation  may  be  briefly  described  thus : At  the  trans- 
mitter a pencil  is  attached  by  rods  to  two  lever-arms  which 
carrv  contact-rollers  at  their  ends.  These  rollers  bear  against 
the  surface  of  two  current-carrying  rheostats,  connected  to  a 
constant-pressure  source  of  direct  current.  The  writing  cur- 
rents pass  from  the  rheostats  to  the  rollers  and  from  them  to 
the  line  wires.  When  the  pencil  is  moved,  as  in  writing,  the 
positions  of  the  rollers  upon  the  rheostats  are  changed  and 
currents  of  varying  strength  go  out  upon  the  line  wires.  At 
the  receiver  these  currents  pass  through  two  vertically  movable 
coils,  suspended  by  springs  in  magnetic  fields,  and  the  coils 
move  up  or  down  according  to  the  strength  of  the  line  surrents. 
The  motions  of  the  coi^^  are  communicated  to  levers  similar  to 


[J.  F.  L, 


^244  English: 

those  at  the  transmitter,  and  on  these  levers  is  mounted  the 
receiver  pen,  which,  l)y  the  motion  of  the  coils,  is  caused  to  du- 
plicate the  motions  of  the  sending  pencil. 

Many  of  the  principles  and  devices  in  the  instruments  are  of 
considerable  interest.  The  method  by  which  the  variable  cur- 
rents are  obtained  is  the  laboratory  arrangement  for  securing 
a variable  pressure  from  a direct  current,  constant  pressure  cir- 
cuit; that  is,  the  line  circuit  (of  constant  resistance)  is  con- 
nected as  a shunt  around  that  part  of  the  rheostat  between  the 
moving  roller  and  the  ground  or  return.  ^Motion  of  the  roller 
varies  the  amount  of  resistance  in  series  with  the  line  and  also 
the  amount  in  parallel  with  it  and  fine  graduations  are  easily 
obtained,  giving  smooth  motion  of  the  receiver  pen.  In  this 
way  a variable  pressure  is  impressed  on  the  line  circuit,  giving 
a variable  current.  In  all  the  other  variable-current  instru- 
ments, a constant  pressure  was  impressed  on  line  and  a resist- 
ance in  series  with  the  line  varied  to  give  the  desired  variations 
in  current.  One  result  of  the  shunting  method  is  a better  form 
of  rheostat,  more  easy  of  construction  and  handling,  in  which, 
also,  the  heating  is  better  distributed. 

The  rheostats  are  wound  upon  castings  of  I cross-section, 
with  the  turns  of  wire  lying  close  together  on  the  inner  or  con- 
tact-face. After  winding,  the  insulation  on  this  face  is  sat- 
urated with  glue,  which  is  allowed  to  harden  and  is  then  scraped 
off,  taking  the  insulation  with  it,  and  giving  a surface  where 
contact  is  possible  on  every  turn  of  the  wire.  This  gives  a 
rheostat  of  a large  number  of  small  steps,  of  good  mechanical 
construction,  and  of  low  cost. 

The  receiver  operates  with  what  may  be  called  a straight-line 
D'Arsonval  movement.  The  moving  element  or  coil  is  wound 
upon  a copper  shell  for  damping  effect.  The  magnetic  cir- 
cuit is  so  arranged  that  one  pole  surrounds  the  other,  forming 
an  annular  air-gap  of  short  length  and  large  cross-section  in 
which  the  direction  of  the  flux  is  radial.  The  field  is  electro- 
magnetic and  is  highly  excited,  to  secure  uniformity.  The  coil 
suspended  in  the  annular  space,  moves  up  or  down  with  little 
friction,  as  it  touches  the  sides  of  the  space  of  the  core  very 
lightly,  if  at  all.  The  principle  is  the  well-known  one  that  a 
circuit-carrying  coil,  in  a magnetic  field,  tends  to  place  itself 


October,  1905.]  Tlic  Telautograph.  245 

with  respect  to  the  held  so  that  the  flux  enclosed  by  the  coil 
shall  be  a maximum. 

The  current  for  operating  is  taken  from  the  ordinary  lighting 
mains,  preferably  at  about  115  volts.  Satisfactory  operation 
has  resulted  with  pressures  from  80  up  to  250.  At  115  volts, 
receiver  and  transmitter  each  require  about  one  ampere  while 
in  operation.  Fairly  steady  pressure  is  necessary  as  the  re- 
ceiver, being  in  effect  a voltmeter,  is  rather  sensitive  to  sudden 
changes,  the  effect  being  slight  distortion  of  the  message. 

A master-switch  at  the  transmitter  is  provided  to  do  all  nec- 
essary switching  of  line  and  power  circuits,  to  make  needed 
changes  in  connections  and  to  cut  off  current  when  not  writing. 
A relay  in  one  of  the  lines  closes  the  power  circuit  of  the  re- 
ceiver whenever  the  transmitter  at  the  distant  station  is 
switched  on,  and  serves  to  prevent  waste  of  current  when  not 
in  operation. 

Attached  to  the  master-switch  is  a mechanical  device  which 
shifts  the  transmitter  paper  the  space  of  one  line  of  ordinary 
writing  for  each  stroke  of  the  switch.  The  relay  mentioned 
controls  the  electrical  receiver  paper  shifter  and,  as  each  stroke 
of  the  switch  causes  a stroke  of  the  relay,  the  receiver  paper  is 
shifted  an  amount  equal  to  that  at  the  transmitter.  The  writ- 
ing is  about  two  inches  long  and  five  inches  wide,  allowing  for 
three  or  four  lines  of  writing.  When  filled  by  messages  a few 
strokes  of  the  switch  serve  to  bring  fresh  paper  into  position 
at  both  receiver  and  transmitter. 

To  prevent  switching  on  of  the  transmitter  while  its  home 
receiver  is  receiving  a message  from  the  distant  station,  an 
electromagnetic  lock  is  connected  in  the  receiver  power  circuit, 
controlled  by  the  relay,  and  locks  the  home  transmitter  in 
the  “off”  position  until  the  distant  transmitter  is  switched  off. 
If  both  transmitters  were  switched  on  at  once  neither  station 
would  receive  any  message;  the  lock  is  provided  to  render  this 
condition  impossible. 

The  ink  supply  is  most  important  and  is  arranged  for  as  fol- 
lows : At  the  left  of  the  receiver  platen  is  a bottle  with  a hole  in 
the  front  near  the  bottom.  When  filled  with  ink  and  tightly 
corked  the  ink  does  not  run  out  of  this  hole  because  of  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  The  ink  is  accessible  for  the  pen 


246 


[J.F.I., 


English: 

at  the  hole  and  the  surface  of  ink  ex])osed  to  e\'aporation  is 
small. 

The  pen  is  made  of  a ])iece  of  (derman  silver  bent  double, 
after  the  manner  of  a ruling  pen,  and  makes  a uniform  line  in 
any  direction  over  the  paper.  It  takes  up  its  supply  by  capil- 
lary attraction,  from  the  hole  in  the  front  of  the  bottle.  When 
the  receiver  is  switched  off,  retractile  springs  draw  the  i)en- 
arms  to  stops  so  arranged  as  to  bring  the  pen  exactly  in  front 
of  the  hole  in  the  bottle,  and  when  the  ])en-lifter  armature  is 
released  the  pen  is  caused  to  insert  its  ti])  in  the  opening.  Thus 
a fresh  fflling  of  ink  is  obtained  each  time  the  paper  is  shifted. 
W'hen  not  in  use  the  pen  rests  in  the  ink,  always  ready  to  write. 

For  the  prevention  of  mechanical  shocks  to  the  necessarily 
ligdit  moving  system  of  the  receiver,  it  has  been  necessary  to 
supply  means  to  prevent  the  switching  on  or  off  of  the  trans- 
mitter, and  by  that  action  of  the  receiver,  when  the  transmitter 
])encil  is  ‘‘out  in  the  field;”  that  is,  at  a position  other  than  that 
corresponding  to  the  opening  in  the  receiver  ink-bottle ; as  in 
that  case  the  receiver  pen  would  instantly  jump  to  a similar 
position.  This  position  is  called  the  “unison  point,"  a term 
having  its  origin  in  the  days  of  the  “self-propellor"  escapement 
telautograph.  By  placing  a catch,  released  only  by  pressure 
of  the  pencil-point  upon  it,  at  the  transmitter  unison  point  the 
desired  result  is  accomplished  and  the  transmitter  master- 
switch  cannot  be  switched  either  “off"  or  “on"  unless  the  pen- 
cil be  placed  at  the  unison  point  and  held  there  until  the  stroke 
of  the  switch  is  completed.  In  this  case,  as  everywhere,  the 
apparatus  is  made  strong  enough  to  stand  any  possible  shocks, 
and  then  every  precaution  is  taken  to  prevent  their  occurrence. 
Aside  from  shock  to  the  moving  system,  these  jumps  might 
shake  the  ink  supply  out  of  the  pen  and  prevent  the  recording 
of  the  message. 

The  pen-lifter  is  a magnet  ])laced  back  of  the  receiver  writing 
])laten,  and  carrying  upon  its  armature  a rod  adapted  to  engage 
with  the  pen-arm  rods  and  raise  the  pen  clear  of  the  paper  when 
the  magnet  is  energized.  This  magnet  is  controlled  from  the 
transmitter  as  follows:  Beneath  the  transmitter  platen  is  a 
spring  contact,  opened  bv  pressure  of  the  pencil  upon  the 
])aper,  and  closed  by  a spring  when  the  pencil  is  raised.  An  in- 
duction coil  having  an  interrupter  iu  its  primary  circuit  is  so 


October,  1905. J 


247 


The  Telautograph. 

connected  to  this  spring-contact  that  when  the  pencil  is  raised 
the  primary  winding  is  short  circuited.  The  induction  coil  has 
two  independent  secondary  windings  through  which  the  two 
variable  line  currents  pass  before  leaving  the  transmitter.  The 
effect  of  the  induction  coil  and  its  interrupted  primary  current 
is  to  induce  in  the  two-line  current  superimposed  vibrations 
or  “ripples”  when  the  pencil  is  pressed  down  on  the  paper  and 
the  spring-contact  is  open.  When  the  contact  is  closed,  by  its 
spring,  and  the  primary  winding  is  cut  out,  no  vibrations  are 
produced  in  the  line  currents.  In  one  of  the  line  wires,  at  the 
receiver,  is  placed  a relay,  upon  whose  sheet-iron  diaphragm 
armature  is  mounted  a loose  contact,  consisting  of  two  plati- 
num-silver contacts  in  series,  sealed  in  a glass  tube,  to  prevent 
oxidation.  A local  circuit  contains  the  winding  of  the  pen- 
lifter  magnet  and  this  loose  contact. 

When  the  vibrations  are  present  in  the  line  current,  due  to 
the  pressure  of  the  pencil  upon  the  paper  and  consequent 
opening  of  short  circuit  of  the  primary  of  the  induction  coil, 
the  diaphragm  of  the  relay  is  shaken,  the  loose  contact  opened 
and  the  pen-lifter  de-energized,  its  armature  is  drawn  back  by 
a spring  and  the  pen  is  allowed  to  rest  against  the  paper. 
When  there  are  no  vibrations  in  the  line  currents  due  to  the 
raising  of  the  pencil  from  the  paper,  the  relay  diaphragm  is  at 
rest  and  the  pen-lifter  is  energized  and  the  pen  is  lifted  clear  of 
the  paper. 

The  superimposed  vibrations  used  for  operating  the  pen- 
lifter  have  another  minor  effect.  The  suspended  coils,  and 
through  them  the  entire  moving  system  of  the  receiver,  are 
kept  in  a state  of  very  slight  mechanical  vibration  while  the  pen 
is  on  the  paper.  This  aids  the  flow  of  ink  from  the  pen-point, 
assists  the  pen  in  passing  over  any  roughness  or  irregularity  in 
the  surface  of  the  paper,  and  materially  reduces  friction  in  the 
joints  and  pivots  of  the  moving  system,  and  results  in  better 
writing.  In  some  of  the  later  instruments  the  two  relays,  that 
for  pen-lifting  and  that  for  paper-shifting  and  power  switching, 
are  combined  in  a single  piece  of  apparatus. 

For  signalling,  a push-button  is  placed  upon  the  transmitter 
and  a call-bell  or  buzzer  is  mounted  on  the  receiver.  This  cir- 
cuit is  disconnected  by  the  master-switch  while  a message  is  be- 
ing written.  Spring  reels  are  attached  when  needed  to  roll 


248 


[J.  F.  I., 


English: 

up  the  received  messages  for  preservation  and  future  reference. 

The  ordinary  arrangements  for  operation  are  as  follows : 
The  instruments  may  be  operated  singly,  upon  a private  line 
having  an  instrument  at  each  end,  or  on  an  exchange  system 
where  a switchboard  provides  for  connection.  Working  in  this 
way,  satisfactory  writing  has  been  obtained  with  a resistance  in 
each  line  wire  of  1600  ohms  and  an  operating  pressure  of  no. 
Multiple  operation  can  be  carried  out  to  a limited  extent,  three 
receivers  being  at  present  the  maximum  number  that  can  be 
operated  at  once,  in  multiple,  using  no  volts.  This  allows  of 
placing  a supervisory  machine  upon  a line. 

Instances  in  actual  commercial  use  of  the  arrangements  of 
instruments  in  Philadelphia  are:  Provident  Life  and  Trust  Co., 
Corn  Exchange  National  Bank,  West  End  Trust,  Tradesmen's 


Trust  Co.,  Girard  Trust  Co.,  who  use  the  Telautograph  to  con- 
nect from  paying  teller  to  book-keeper  to  ascertain  a deposi- 
tor’s balance.  C.  J.  WTbb  & Co.,  116  Chestnut  Street,  have  a 
line  which  connects  to  their  warehouse,  148  X.  Eront  Street, 
for  giving  orders  for  shipment  of  wool.  Philadelphia  Electric 
Co.  have  a line  to  connect  from  loth  and  Sansom  to  Second 
and  Arch  Streets;  this  line  is  used  mainly  for  sending  the  read- 
ings of  meters  to  the  book-keeping  department. 

Strawbridge  & Clothier  use  the  instrument  to  connect  from 
the  Superintendent’s  office  to  the  Auditing  Department,  for  as- 
certaining a customer’s  credit.  Einley  Acker  Co.  have  lines 


October,  1905.] 


249 


The  Telautograph. 

which  connect  their  three  stores,  Twelfth  and  Chestnut,  Twelfth 
and  Market  and  128  N.  Eighth  Street,  to  their  book-keeping 
department,  to  ascertain  the  reliability  of  a customer's  credit. 

Multiple  operation  may  be  resorted  to  when  a third  station 
upon  a line  desires  a record  accessible  at  any  time,  of  what  is 
being  sent,  as  for  instance,  when  one  of  the  officers  of  a bank 
desires  to  know  what  passes  between  his  book-keepers  and 
paying  tellers.  On  such  a line  the  third  station  receives  all 
messages  and  can  write  to  either  or  both  of  the  other  stations 
should  the  necessity  arise.  Such  an  installation  can  be  seen  at 
the  North  American  Trust  Co.,  New  York. 

Series  operations  may  be  used  when  several  stations  are  to 
receive  the  same  message  and  no  response  except  a bell  signal  is 
required,  as  in  sending  orders  in  a hotel  or  club  from  dining 
room  to  kitchen,  pantry,  or  wine  room;  in  “reporting”  or  news 
service,  or  for  bulletin  work,  such  as  the  announcement  of  ar- 
rival and  departure  of  trains  to  a number  of  stations  in  a large 
railway  station  or  freight  depot. 

Recently  two  such  installations,  one  at  the  St.  Louis  Term- 
inal, St.  Louis,  Mo.,  the  other  at  the  Pittsburgh  Terminal  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company,  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  have  been 
made,  and  a similar  installation  at  Broad  Street  Station  is  plan- 
ned in  the  near  future. 

One  of  the  most  important  uses  for  series  systems  has  been 
found  in  the  U.  S.  Coast  Defense  .Service,  in  sending  ballistic 
data,  such  as  range  and  azimuth  of  target,  or  character  of  pro- 
jectile, from  position-finding  stations  to  the  gunners.  This 
is  called  “fire-control  communication,”  and  is  installed  in  the 
forts  of  the  U.  S.  Signal  Corps.  In  a paper  presented  by  Col. 
Samuel  Reber  on  “Electricity  in  the  Signal  Corps,”  will  be 
found  a description  of  the  position-finding  system  and  the  de- 
sired characteristics  of  a system  of  communication  for  sending 
this  data  to  the  guns  are  stated  as  follows:  “The  system  that 
will  successfully  solve  this  problem  must  be  simple  in  construc- 
tion, mechanically  strong  so  as  not  to  be  affected  by  the  blast, 
as  the  receivers  are  placed  close  to  the  guns,  rapid  in  operation, 
and  give  a character  of  record  that  can  be  read  without  liability 
of  error.”  Since  that  paper  was  prepared  it  has  been  decided 
that  the  receivers  must  be  mounted  directly  on  the  gun-car- 
riage and  can  have  no  shelter  other  than  that  afforded  by  their 


250 


LJ.  F.  [., 


English: 

own  cases.  Add  to  these  recjuirements  the  facts  that  the  in- 
struments must  he  cared  for  l)y  ])ost  electricians,  and  operated 
by  enlisted  artillerymen,  messages  must  he  visible  at  night ; and 
the  operation  must  he  independent  of  rain,  salt  mists,  cold, 
heat,  or  tropical  insects,  and  it  is  apparent  that  no  easy  ])roh- 
lem  is  presented. 

A special  type  of  telautograph  has  been  designed  for  this 
service,  and  has  been  adopted  l)y  the  U.  S.  Signal  Corps  for 
fire-control  communication. 

In  this  ‘‘service  telautograph”  the  pen-lifter  controlling  the 
relay  is  eliminated  and  the  receiver  pen-lifters  are  operated 
over  a third  line  wire  by  the  transmitter  platen  switch  directly. 

Each  gun  receiver  is  enclosed  in  a water-tight  brass  case,  sus- 
pended by  springs  from  the  gun  carriage  directly  in  front  of  the 
g'unner.  The  parts  are,  as  far  as  possible,  made  “brutally 
strong,”  and  the  construction  is  as  simple  as  possible. 

The  desired  rapidity  of  operation  is  inherent  to  the  telauto- 
graph, and  accuracy  of  record  is  ensured  by  careful  writing  and 
by  the  use  of  a “home”  receiver,  mounted  at  the  transmitter, 
where  the  operator  can  see  plainly,  which  is  connected  in  series 
with  the  gun  receivers  and  records  the  messages  as  actually 
sent  over  the  line. 

Freezing  of  ink  is  prevented  by  the  addition  of  alcohol;  and 
rain,  mists,  and  insects,  as  well  as  the  effects  of  the  blast,  are 
shut  out  by  the  metal  case.  A heavy  glass  window  is  placed  in 
the  case  so  that  messages  can  be  read  without  opening  the 
case. 

A small  incandescent  lamp  inside  the  case  lights  automati- 
cally when  the  receiver  is  writing  and  may  be  lighted  by  press- 
ing a button  at  other  times,  thus  providing  for  visibility  at 
night. 

On  warships  there  is  a somewhat  similar  service  to  be  ren- 
dered and  the  performance  of  this  should  fall  to  the  army  type 
of  telautograph. 

Commercial  service  has  given  opportunity  for  the  installa- 
tion of  a considerable  number  of  private,  line  telautographs  in 
actual  use,  and  at  least  three  of  each  of  the  other  typical  in- 
stallations are  in  operation  at  the  present  time. 

Much  of  the  improvement  in  details  of  construction  and  re- 
liability in  operation  has  resulted  from  experience  gained  in 


October,  1905.] 


Notes  and  Coninicnts. 


251 


efforts  to  perfect  service  of  these  commercial  plants.  The  ex- 
perience leading  up  to  the  special  arm  type  of  telautograph  has 
extended  over  a period  of  about  five  years,  and  in  the  present 
instrument  all  the  requirements,  unusually  severe  as  they  are, 
have  been  successfully  fulfilled. 


THE  VALUE  OF  THEORY. 

That  the  electron  hypothesis  is  weakening  faith  in  some  of  onr  most 
cherished  theories  of  electrical  action  cannot  be  denied;  and  the  time-hon- 
ored tenets  of  magnetism  are  now  subject  to  challenge  as  a consequence 
of  the  researches  in  non-ferric  alloys  by  Fleming  and  Hadfield, 

In  view  of  this  condition,  which  may  be  disturbing  to  the  minds  of  those 
who  do  not  properly  recognize  the  real  function  of  theory,  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  established  theory  should  never  be  held  as  an  article  of  faith 
— as  is  too  often  done  when  connected  with  names  of  high  authority — but 
considered  only  as  an  acceptable  generalization  on  all  the  facts  in  existence 
coming  within  the  range  of  the  theory.  To  hold  any  theory  as  an  ultimate 
explanation  of  any  set  of  phenomena  implies  that  every  fact  relating  to  the 
phenomena  is  known — that  nature  has  nothing  more  to  reveal.  It  is,  more- 
over, a condition  of  the  growth  of  human  knowledge  in  any  department  of 
science,  that  whereas  the  advance  never  ceases  in  the  acquisition  of  facts, 
yet  the  interpretation  placed  upon  series  of  facts  may  vary  markedly  from 
time  to  time.  The  wealth  of  acquired  material  does  not  shrink,  but  always 
advances,  sometimes  rapidly  and  at  other  times  more  slowly.  Nevertheless, 
the  theories  embracing  the  facts,  and  attempting  to  explain  them,  often 
wax  and  wither  in  a single  decade.  It  might  really  be  questioned  whether 
in  view  of  the  history  of  mortality  in  theories  it  were  worth  while  attempt- 
ing to  find  a theory  to  fit  observation,  and  whether  it  would  not  be  better 
to  go  on  accumulating  new  materials  of  facts,  heedless  of  their  theoretical 
relations.  The  value  of  theory  is,  however,  that  it  co-ordinates,  or  at  least 
seeks  to  co-ordinate,  the  facts  so  as  to  permit  of  their  proper  grouping  and 
presentation  in  natural  sequence.  Without  the  aid  of  theory,  knowledge 
would  constantly  become  more  difficult,  by  accumulation;  whereas,  with  the 
aid  of  theory,  knowledge  may  actually  grow  easier  to  acciuire,  from  age  to 
age,  in  spite  of  the  constant  accumulation  of  material. — Electrical  World. 


GERMAN  SHIPBUILDING  IN  1904. 

One  of  the  most  important  lines  of  Germany’s  industrial  expansion  has 
been  in  shipbuilding.  Figures  transmitted  by  United  States  Consul-General 
Richard  Guenther,  Frankfort,  Germany,  show  that  in  1904  the  German 
shipyards  turned  out  278  steamships  of  210,999  gross  registered  tons  and 
256  sailing  vessels  of  49,712  gross  registered  tons.  At  the  beginning  of 
1905  they  had  under  construction  152  steam  vessels  of  285,539  gross  tons,  of 
which  9 were  men-of-war  of  a total  of  69,640  tons.  The  production  for  1904 
includes  22  steamers  and  some  sailing  vessels,  of  about  20,000  tons  in  all, 
built  for  foreign  account. 


252 


Azotes  and  Comments. 


[J.  F.  L, 


REINFORCED  CONCRETE  RAILWAY  TIES. 

An  interesting  use  of  cement  is  a method  of  manufacturing  railroad  ties 
recently  introduced  on  the  Elgin,  Joliet  & Eastern  Railway.  These  ties  are 
manufactured  under  a design  originated  by  R.  B.  Campbell,  general  mana- 
ger of  the  company,  Joliet,  111. 

The  tie  is  8 feet  6 inches  long  and  6x7  inches  in  section,  with  beveled 
edges,  except  under  the  rails,  where  it  widens  to  10  inches  for  a distance  of 
SV2  inches  on  either  side  of  the  center  of  the  rail.  The  corners  of  this 
widened  portion  are  also  beveled  to  meet  the  body  of  the  tie.  Reinforce- 
ment is  furnished  by  two-inch  wrought-iron  pipe,  scran  boiler  tubes  being 
utilized  for  the  purpose.  Two-seven-foot  lengths  of  these  tubes  are  used 
for  each  tie,  placed  side  by  side.  The  tubes  are  surrounded,  sides  and  ends, 
by  a single  thickness  of  poultry  netting.  On  the  center  line  of  the  tie  be- 
low each  rail,  and  parallel  thereto,  is  a 6x8  inch  plate  of  heavy  wire  netting 
inserted  through  specially-punched  openings  in  the  pipes.  The  rail  is  held 
to  thel  tie  by  beveled  clip  washers  and  a single  U-bolt  placed  obliquely  to 
the  longitudinal  center  line.  A metal  plate  is  imbedded  in  the  tie  under  the 
rail. 

Very  satisfactory  tests  were  made  with  a number  of  these  ties  on  a 
testing  machine,  and  140  were  placed  in  use,  which  have  been  in  service 
from  nine  to  thirteen  months.  Of  these  ties  nineteen  failed  in  service,  but 
investigation  showed  that  the  defects  were  caused  through  imperfect  mix- 
ture, there  having  been  considerable  loam  mixed  with  the  sand  in  making 
the  concrete.  The  results,  however,  were  regarded  as  sufficiently  satis- 
factory to  warrant  the  manufacture  of  icoo  more  of  the  ties,  which  are  to  be 
placed  in  the  track  of  the  Chicago,  Lake  Shore  & Eastern  Railroad,  where 
the  traffic  is  very  heavy.  Mr.  Campbell  states  that  the  ties  can  be  manu- 
factured and  sold  at  a cost  of  $1.50  to  $1.75  each. — Iron  Age. 


SMOKE-PREVENTING  DEVICE. 

A new  smoke-preventing  device  for  boiler  furnaces  has  been  invented  by 
Air.  J.  S.  Pearson,  of  Glasgow.  The  system  consists  of  discharging  a com- 
bination of  steam,  air  and  producer  gas  into  the  furnace.  The  three  ele- 
ments are  combined  and  discharged  through  nozzles  fitted  to  short  pipe 
connections.  The  resulting  chemical  action  releases  the  hydrogen  in  the 
steam,  and  combines  the  oxygen  with  the  carbon  in  the  fuel.  The  decom- 
nosition  of  the  supplied  gases  is  thus  completed,  and.  by  combining  with  the 
fuel  gases  and  the  resulting  new  gases  thus  produced,  creates  great  heating 
power,  emitting  heavy  smoke.  The  latter,  however,  decreases  in  volume 
toward  the  tubes,  in  which  there  are  only  fiames,  and  is  completely  con- 
sumed before  it  reaches  the  chimney.  The  steam  pressure  does  not  vary 
with  the  stoking  or  cleaning  of  the  furnace,  and  no  ashes  or  clinkers  are 
formed.  The  system  can  be  applied  to  any  type  of  boiler. — Scioitific 
American. 


October,  1905.] 


Alternating  Current  Generator. 


253 


ELKCTRICAI^  SECTION. 

(Stated  Meeting,  held  Thursday,  March  yo,  ipoy.) 


The  Alternating  Current  Generator, 

By  David  B.  Rushmore. 


[This  article  is  suhstautially  a historical  sketch  of  the  origin,  development  and  present  status  of 
this  important  class  of  electric  generators.— The  Editor.] 

The  dynamo  dates  from  the  discovery  by  Faraday,  in  1831, 
of  the  law  of  electro  magnetic  induction.  The  previous  discov- 
eries of  Oersted,  in  1820,  regarding  the  relative  positions  of  a 
permanent  magnet  and  an  electric  current,  and  of  Arago  and 
Sturgeon  of  the  possibility  of  making  magnets  from  pieces  of 
soft  iron  by  passing  an  electric  current  around  them,  led  Fara- 
day, in  an  unparalleled  series  of  experiments,  to  discover  that 
important  law,  and  on  September  4th,  of  that  year,  was  first 
coined  the  expression  “lines  of  force.” 

Faraday's  disc  generator,  constructed  in  1831,  was  an  experi- 
mental unipolar  and  is  of  interest  as  being  the  first  dynamo 
electric  machine.  The  early  development  of  the  dynamo  con- 
sisted of  many  modifications  of  magneto  generators,  and  it  was 
aliout  1856  that  the  first  commercial  use  was  made  of  such  ap- 
paratus, when  the  embryo  of  our  present  arc  lamp  was  supplied 
by  current  from  a machine  built  by  the  Campagnie  de  TAlli- 
ance,  which  had  been  developed  by  VanMalderen  and  Nollet. 
This  installation  was  in  the  lighthouse.  Until  1876  there  was  a 
large  amount  of  work  done  in  the  development  of  dynamo 
machines,  most  of  which  were,  however,  for  the  generation  of 
•direct  current  and  concerned  with  the  work  in  which  are  asso- 
ciated the  familiar  names  of  Siemens,  Wheatstone,  Pacinotti, 
Wilde,  Gramme,  Lontin,  de  Meritens,  Brush,  Weston,  Edison, 
Hefner- Altenech,  Ganz  and  Schuckert. 

What  might  justly  be  called  the  first  practical  alternators  were 
those  built  by  Gramme,  between  1876  and  1880.  These  are 


254 


Rush  more: 


IJ.F  I.. 


interniil  revolving;-  field  c^enerators  with  direct-connected  ex- 
citers, and  were  demanded  l)y  the  desire  to  have  l)oth  carbons 
of  the  Jal)lochkoff  candles  l)nrn  evenly,  which  could  not  be 
done  with  the  direct  current  machines  then  in  use.  The 
armature  winding-  is  stationary  and  external,  but  is  the  same  as 
the  ])reviously  well-known  Gramme  ring  construction.  The  arm- 
ature is  wound  with  four  sei)arate  phases  and  the  earlier  ma- 
chines have  eight  j^oles  on  the  field  and  eight  sections  on  the 
armature.  The  corres])onding  coils  in  the  different  sections 
were  connected  in  parallel  or  series,  as  was  desirable.  It  was 
with  these  machines  that  the  term  “exciter”  was  first  used. 
The  special  interest  of  these  machines  to-day  is  the  fact  that 
they  were  of  the  internal  revolving  field  type  with  a ])olyphase 
armature  winding*  and  having  direct  connected  exciters. 

Following  the  Gramme  machines  we  have  a development  of 
alternators  by  de  Meritens,  Hefner-Alteneck,  Ganz,  Schuckert, 
Zipernow^ski  & Deri,  and,  in  more  recent  years,  such  machines 
as  designed  by  Kapp,  Mordey  and  Ferrenti. 

The  first  machine  used  to  any  extent  in  this  country  was  de- 
veloped about  1886-7.  It  consisted  of  a stationary  external 
field  with  inwardly  projecting  pole  pieces,  the  cast-iron  pole 
pieces  and  yoke  being  cast  together.  The  pole  face  was  beveled 
slightly  at  the  armature  surface,  but  was.  not  extended  beyond 
the  pole  core.  The  internal  revolving  armature  consisted  of 
discs  built  up  directly  on  the  shaft.  There  were  six  ventilating 
holes  running  lengthwise  on  the  shaft  but  none  at  right  angles 
thereto.  Wooden  pieces  w*ere  secured  to  the  ends  over  which 
the  flat  pancake  coils  were  wound,  the  ends  being  bent  back 
at  right  angles  from  the  cylindrical  surface.  AToden  pieces 
were  also  placed  in  the  center  of  the  flat  pancake  coils,  and  later 
the  same  were  placed  between  the  adjacent  coils.  The  core 
was  covered  with  insulating  material  on  which  these  wooden 
strips  were  fastened,  being  held  by  screws,  which  passed 
through  the  insulation  into  the  iron  core.  After  the  coils  were 
wound  by  hand  on  the  surface  of  these  machines,  another  cov- 
ering of  insulation  was  placed  aroinul  the  armature,  which  was 
held  in  place  by  bands  of  piano  wire,  and  on  the  ends  by  end 
bells.  These  machines  possessed  excellent  regulating  c|uali- 
ties,  good  wave  form,  and  good  alfility  to  radiate  heat.  They 
were,  however,  very  easily  injured,  and  the  entire  winding 


October,  1905.] 


255 


AUcniating  Current  Generator. 

could  be  stripped  from  the  armature  by  a piece  of  metal  falling 
thereon  or  by  the  wear  of  the  bearings,  allowing  the  armature 
to  strike  the  pole  pieces. 

These  early  machines  were  all  for  15,000  or  16,000  alterna- 
tions and  were,  of  course,  single  phase.  The  pulsating  arma- 
ture reaction  from  these  alternators  caused  the  pole  pieces  to 
heat,  and  the  first  change  was  to  cast  laminated  poles  into  the 
field  yoke.  The  next  change  was  to  make  a toothed  armature 
with  one  tooth  per  pole  and  one  armature  coil  per  tooth.  These 
armature  coils  were  machine  wound  and  were  insulated  sepa- 
rately from  the  core.  They  were  drawn  beneath  the  project- 
ing top  of  the  teeth  and  were  held  in  place  by  a wooden  wedge 
driven  between  the  adjacent  coils.  Brass  shields  fitted  over 
the  projecting  ends  of  these  coils,  completly  protecting  them 
from  the  possibility  of  external  injury.  These  iron-clad  arma- 
tures were  a great  improvement  mechanically,  and  it  was  pos- 
sible to  subject  them  to  very  rough  handling  without  injury. 
The  concentrated  winding  gave  poor  regulation,  a bad  wave 
form  and  poorer  heating  qualities  than  the  smooth  core  type. 
The  considerable  pulsation  of  magnetic  reluctance  caused  heat- 
ing. The  quickness  and  ease  of  repair,  however,  made  these 
machines  a decided  improvement  over  the  old  ones. 

There  were  a considerable  number  of  modifications  of  both 
the  smooth  core  and  toothed  machine  with  regard  to  com- 
pounding. In  some  cases  an  auxiliary  winding  was  placed  on 
the  armature  and  the  current  therefrom  taken  through  a two- 
part  commutator  to  either  the  main  or  auxiliary  field.  In 
other  cases,  the  main  current  passed  through  a series  trans- 
former, either  consisting  of  the  arms  of  the  machine  itself  or  a 
separate  transformer  external  to  the  armature.  From  the 
toothed  form,  a polyphase  machine  was  developed  known  as 
the  Plus  2 type,  in  which  the  revolving  armature  had  two  teeth 
more  than  were  poles  on  the  field.  Taps  led  into  the  armature 
at  points  90°  apart  and  gave  the  desired  quarter-phase  relation 
of  the  current.  The  next  step  was  to  distribute  the  winding- 
in  many  small  slots,  as  is  now  done.  This  allowed  the  use  of 
machine-wound  coils,  which  were  easily  placed  on  the  arma- 
ture, and  were  held  in  place  by  wedges  passing  over  the  slot. 
With  this  winding,  better  regulation  and  better  wave  form  were 
obtained,  as  well  as  improved  ventilating  qualities.  The  sup- 


256 


Riislunore: 


[J.  F.  L, 


porting  arms  of  these  armatures  were  used  for  series  transform- 
ers and  by  means  of  a two-part  commutator,  the  machines  were 
compounded.  Radial  ventilating  ducts  were  also  introduced, 
and  about  this  time  the  use  of  oil  rings  instead  of  the  oil  drip 
became  general.  The  revolving  armature  with  a distributed 
winding  was  built  in  many  sizes  and  with  a considerable  varia- 
tion of  mechanical  construction. 

The  demand  for  higher  voltages  led  to  the  practice  of  build- 
ing the  armature  external  to  the  field  and  revolving  the  field. 
This  allowed  the  armature  circuit  to  remain  unbroken,  the 
only  sliding  contacts  being  those  for  the  low  voltage  field  ex- 
citation with  carbon  brushes  on  cast-iron  rings.  It  also  al- 
lowed the  armatures  to  be  wound  directly  for  voltages  as  high 
as  13,200.  The  field  coil  is  made  of  copper  strip  wound  on 
edge,  making  a large  saving  in  the  amount  of  material  neces- 
sary for  this  part,  and  so  making  the  field  coil  practically  inde- 
structable  by  heat.  Simultaneously  with  these  improvements, 
a great  change  has  taken  place  in  the  insulation  used  for  arma- 
tures and  the  use  of  oil  in  some  form  having  become  the  best 
practice. 

NIAGARA  FALLS  GENERATORS. 

The  recent  development  of  alternator  design  is  well  shown  in 
the  different  types  of  machines  which  have  been  furnished  the 
various  power  stations  at  Niagara  Falls.  These  machines  have 
been  so  frequently  described  that  only  the  points  of  particular 
interest  will  be  touched  upon. 

The  original  design  consisted  of  the  umbrella  type  external 
revolving  field  supported  from  the  top  of  the  shaft.  This  gave 
the  advantages  of  combining  the  fly-wheel  with  the  revolving 
field  and  with  having  the  centrifugal  force  of  the  poles  in  oppo- 
site direction  to  the  magnetic  pull.  It  also  relieved  the  bolts 
holding  the  poles  of  any  strains  due  to  centrifugal  force.  The 
revolving  field  ring  was  forged  from  an  ingot  of  compressed 
nickel  steel  without  a weld,  and  the  poles  were  solid  steel  cast- 
ings held  to  the  rim  by  bolts.  The  field  coils  were  held  in 
place  by  the  projecting  tips  of  the  pole.  A rectangular  wire 
was  used  in  the  field  coil,  which  was  wound  up  in  solid  form 
and  was  not  ventilated.  The  collector  was  placed  on  the  upper 
end  of  the  shaft  and  a bridge  structure  ran  over  the  machine  in 


October,  1905.] 


257 


Alternating  Current  Generator. 

order  to  give  access  to  the  collector  and  bearings.  The  arma- 
ture slots  were  nearly  enclosed  with  two  conductors  per  slot 
and  insulated  with  material,  which  was  largely  mica.  The  bolts 
clamping  the  armature  iron  passed  through  the  laminations 
which  were  ventilated  with  six  one-inch  ducts.  The  ends  of 
the  armature  winding  were  left  unsupported.  On  these  ma- 
chines thrust  bearings  were  used  as  the  direction  of  the  press- 
ure on  the  vertical  shaft  varied  with  the  load. 

The  second  lot  of  machines  were  made  by  the  same  manufac- 
turers as  the  first,  but  a number  of  changes  were  introduced 
which  experience  had  shown  to  be  desirable.  The  nuts  on  the 
field  ring  were  sunk  into  the  metal.  The  field  coil  was  very 
much  changed,  being  wound  with  a number  of  layers  of  copper 
strip  wound  on  edge,  and  the  whole  being  well  ventilated  with 
ducts  through  the  winding  and  holes  cored  into  the  bobbin. 
The  field  coil  insulation  was  largely  mica  and  shellac.  In  the 
armature  twelve  half-inch  ventilating  spaces  were  used  instead 
of  six  one-inch,  as  in  the  first  machine.  The  bolts  clamping 
the  iron  did  not  pass  through  the  laminations  and  much  better 
work  was  done  on  the  punchings,  so  that  less  finishing  of  the 
slots  by  filing  was  required  and  in  this  way  the  heating  consid- 
erably reduced.  The  slots  were  made  more  numerous  and 
smaller,  so  that  there  was  l3ut  one  conductor  per  slot  and  the 
armature  winding  was  reduced  15  per  cent.  AVith  this  reduc- 
tion came  also  a reduction  in  length  of,  air  gap  from  one  inch 
to  three-quarters  of  an  inch.  Like  the  first  machine,  the  second 
had  also  very  bad  regulation,  which  was  at  that  time  considered 
advisable  as  giving  the  small  cross  currents  and  also  as  placing 
an  automatic  limit  to  the  current  output  of  the  machine.  The 
ventilation  of  the  first  machine  had  not  taken  place  as  expected 
and  drag  hoods  were  placed  on  the  revolving  part  of  the  second 
machine.  The  armature  was  also  cooled  by  means  of  circulat- 
ing water  in  heavy  copper  tanks  placed  back  of  the  laminations. 

The  third  machines  were  built  by  a different  manufacturer, 
and  were  considerably  changed  in  design.  The  purchasing  com- 
pany, however,  demanded  that  in  general  appearance  and  ar- 
rangement that  they  conform  to  the  previous  types.  The  collec- 
tor rings  were  placed  below  the  armature  and  the  bridge  over 
the  machine  was  omitted.  The  regulation  was  made  very  much 
better  than  in  the  old  machines.  The  armature  coils  were  ma- 


Vor.  CIvX.  No.  958 


17 


258 


Rushmore: 


[J.  F.  I., 


chine  wound  and  consisted  of  rectangular  cable  placed  in  open 
slots  with  two  coils  per  slot.  The  poles,  instead  of  being  solid, 
were  laminated  and  the  load  losses  thus  materially  reduced. 
The  method  of  ventilating  was  also  entirely  changed,  so  that 
the  air  was  drawn  into  the  center  of  the  machine  from  below 
and  forced  out  at  holes  in  the  upper  part  of  the  revolving  ring. 

The  fourth  type  of  Niagara  machine  was  made  by  the  same 
manufacturer  as  the  third  but  the  type  of  machine  was  entirely 
changed.  In  this  generator,  the  internal  revolving  field  was 
used  and  while  this  choice  was  due  to  the  development  which 
had  taken  place  in  this  style  of  machine  it  was  allowable  in  par- 
ticular because  of  the  improvements  made  in  water  wheel  gov- 
ernors, which  necessitated  a smaller  fly-wheel  capacity.  Nu- 
merous ventilating  ducts  were  placed  in  the  armature.  The 
slots  were  open  and  contained  two  conductors  of  standard  cop- 
per cable.  The  ring  of  the  revolving  field  is  built  up  of 
laminated  steel  sheets  and  the  poles  are  built  up  separately  of 
the  same  material.  These  are  then  held  in  place  in  the  field 
ring  by  dove-tails  and  keys.  The  armature  coils  are  supported 
on  the  ends  outside  of  the  laminated  iron  to  prevent  any  bind- 
ing effects  due  to  short  circuits  or  heavy  currents.  In  other 
respects,  the  generators  are  all  standard  revolving  field  type  of 
construction. 

The  fifth  Niagara  machines  are  double  the  output  of  the 
previous  ones,  or  7,500  K.W.  each.  The  mechanical  structure 
of  the  armature  frame  differs  somewhat  from  the  previous  ma- 
chine, but  in  general  the  variation  is  simply  one  of  size.  In 
this  machine  the  solid  bar  is  used  for  the  conductor  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  slot  and  a stranded  cable,  which  is  passed  through 
the  vacuum  japan  treatment,  for  the  conductor  at  the  surface. 

In  this  country  modern  types  of  alternators  are  divided  into 
two  distinct  classes,  the  inductor  type  and  the  revolving  field 
type.  The  revolving  armature  with  external  field  is  still  used 
to  some  extent.  Descriptions  will  be  given  of  the  inductor 
type  alternator  as  developed  and  manufactured  by  the  Stanley 
Elec.  Mfg.  Co.,  and  of  revolving  field  generators  made  by  the 
same  concern,  illustrating  the  engine  type  and  coupled  or 
water-wheel  type.  Also,  a brief  description  of  modern  forms 
of  turbo-alternators. 


Prankiin  insi.,  VoL  CLX,  October,  igd^.  {Xushmore) 


k 

4 


I" 


S.  K.  C.  inductor  alternator,  engine  type,  300  KW.— 182  R.P.  M.  8000  alts.  Winding  on  aiinature  not  shown.  Details  of  slot, 

field  bobbin,  inductor  punching,  and  hub. 


26o 


Riislujwrc: 


[J.  F.  I., 


the  conditions.  A consideralde  variation  in  mechanical  con- 
struction exists  in  each  type.  The  armature  frame  may  either 
be  made  of  cast-steel  shell  or  tie-bar  construction,  depending 
upon  the  size  of  the  machine  and  the  output  per  pole.  \Miere 
kilowatts  per  pole  exceed  a certain  figure,  a limited  peripheral 
velocity  may  necessitate  the  use  of  a cast-steel  shell.  In  the 
standard  tie  bar  construction,  the  external  stationary  armature 


Fig.  2.  Xo.  1(!  machine.  .S4:i.  C'oil  clamps  and  connections. 


INDUCTOR  ALTERNATOR. 


The  inductor  alternator  was  developed  in  this  country  about 
twelve  years  ago,  and  was  at  that  time  decidedly  superior  to 
any  other  machine  on  the  market.  The  mechanical  construc- 
tion is  clearly  illustrated  in  Figs,  i,  2,  3 and  4.  These  machines 
are  made  either  engine  type,  coupled  or  belted,  depending  upon 


washer  which  fixes  the  distance  between  these  rings.  The  out- 
side rings  in  some  cases  have  the  shields  to  protect  the  arma- 
ture coils  cast  in  one  piece  with  the  ring.  In  other  cases  the 
shields  are  separate  and  are  fastened  by  screws.  It  is  seen  that 
the  space  between  the  two  center  rings  is  but  partially  occupied 
by  the  magnet  bars  and  that  a large  amount  of  space,  affording 
easy  egress  for  the  air  circulated  by  the  revolving  inductor  is 
offered,  thus  giving  excellent  opportunities  for  ventilation  of 
field  coils  and  inner  ends  of  the  armature  winding.  The 
laminated  iron  in  these  machines  consists  of  the  best  obtain- 


October,  1905.]  Alternating  Current  Generator.  261 

is  supported  by  four  cast-iron  rings  which  are  parted  in  either 
an  horizontal  or  vertical  plane.  The  armature  laminations  are 
held  between  the  bars  on  outside  rings  and  are  supported  on 
tie  bars  which  connect  the  cast-iron  rings  as  shown,  while  sup- 
porting the  active  iron,  and,  also,  act  as  part  of  the  magnetic  cir- 
cuit of  the  armature,  although  the  magnetism  of  these  bars  un- 
dergoes no  variation.  Half  of  the  bars  butt  against  the  out- 
side rings,  as  shown.  Between  the  two  metal  rings  is  a pipe 


Fig.  3.  S.  K.  C.  inductor  alternator  showing  method  of  removing  armature  coil. 


262  Rush  more:  [J.  F.  I., 

able  quality  of  sheet  steel,  made  according'  to  rigid  specifica- 
tions, which  is  afterwards  punched  out  at  the  shop  and  thor- 
oughly annealed  and  japanned  by  special  processes,  the  de- 
velopment of  which  is  the  result  of  many  years  of  experience. 
On  the  ends  of  each  section  of  laminated  iron  are  sheets  of 
much  heavier  rolled  plate,  called  stiffeners.  These  keep  the 
laminated  sheets  in  shape  and  ])revent  their  spreading  apart. 


Fit?.  S.  K.  V.  Indicator  Alternator  Coinjilete. 

The  inductor  alternator  has  but  a single  field  coil  and  this  is 
supported  on  the  inside  of  the  armature  structure  and  does  not 
revolve.  The  coil  consists  in  the  larger  machines  of  a flat  cop- 
per strip  wound  inside  a brass  bobbin,  the  sections  of  winding 
being  separated  from  each  other  by  a wide  ventilating  duct 
passing  radially  through  the  center  of  the  coil.  The  strips  are 
insulated  from  each  other  by  means  of  oil  cloth  and  the  whole 
winding  is  insulated  from  the  bobbin  hy  means  of  specially  pre- 


October,  1905.] 


263 


Alternating  Current  Generator. 

pared  insulating  material.  The  winding  of  the  field  coil  is  thus 
seen  to  be  well  protected  from  any  possible  mechanical  injury 
and  to  be  exposed  to  excellent  ventilation  on  the  sides  of  the 
coil  and  also  through  the  center  by  a current  of  air  set  up  by 
the  skeleton  revolving  mass  known  as  the  inductor.  The  arm- 
ature winding  is  placed  in  slots  in  the  laminated  iron  and  is  held 
by  either  clamps  on  the  ends  of  the  coil,  as  in  some  of  the  old 
machines,  or  by  wooden  wedges  across  the  top  of  the  slot  in 
the  latest  types.  The  armature  winding  is  in  almost  all  cases 
what  is  known  as  the  concentrated  winding.  This  gives  a firm 
coil  with  very  short  ends,  needing  no  support  on  the  ends  of 


the  coils  to  prevent  a bending  effect  from  short  circuits.  In 
the  larger  machines,  the  armature  coils  can  be  removed  without 
disturbing  the  machine  in  any  way.  It  is  usual  to  wind  the 
armature  with  two  coils  per  slot,  although  certain  cases  arise 
in  which  the  one  coil  per  slot  arrangement  is  necessary.  The 
entire  armature  winding  is  accessible  for  inspection  when  the 
machine  is  not  in  operation  and  in  a way  not  possible  with  any 
other  type  of  machine.  The  armature  winding  consists  of 
either  wire,  strip  or  stranded  cable  wound  on  suitable  forms 
and  properly  insulated.  Where  stranded  copper  cable  is  used 
and  in  all  other  cases  where  it  is  advisable,  the  winding  is  given 


264 


RusJimorc: 


[J.  F.  I., 


a vacuum  compound  treatment  which  completely  fills  the  in- 
terstices of  the  coil  with  an  insulating  japan.  This  is  then 
pressed  into  shape  and  baked  so  that  a uniform  solid  structure 
results  which  cannot  be  injured  by  vibration,  and  which  is  prac- 
tically indestructible  under  such  conditions  of  operation  as 
should  exist.  These  machines  may  be  wound  for  one,  two  or 
three  phases,  and  in  the  latter  case  the  winding  may  be  for 
either  a star  or  delta  connection.  In  the  insulation  of  the  arm- 
ature coils,  the  best  and  most  recent  type  of  oil  cloth  insulation 
is -used,  no  micanite  being  permitted  in  any  part  of  the  coil. 
Such  oil  insulation  if  not  subjected  to  too  great  a temperature 
remains  for  years  in  practically  the  same  condition  as  when  first 
placed  on  the  coils.  The  revolving  part,  known  as  the  in- 
ductor, consists  of  a skeleton  steel  casting  on  which  are 


mounted  pole  and  projections  of  laminated  steel.  The  ex- 
ternal magnetic  part  of  this  structure  is  mounted  upon  arms 
and  held  in  the  usual  manner,  and  the  castings  are  sub-divided 
in  a variety  of  ways  as  best  suited  to  the  particular  machine  as 
regards  the  convenience  of  handling.  The  central  part  of  the 
revolving  casting  is  cored  out  at  intervals  around  the  circum- 
ference giving  one-third  of  the  space  in  ventilating  holes  and 
about  two-thirds  of  solid  metal,  which  arrangement  affords  the 
best  possible  ventilation  for  the  field  coil,  allowing  a blast  of  air 
to  be  thrown  against  the  three  sides  and  forced  through  the 
center  ventilating  space.  The  rims  on  which  are  mounted  the 
pole  laminations  are  cut  away  between  the  polar  projections  in 


October,  1905.]  Alternating  Current  Generator.  265 

the  later  machines.  This  style  of  construction,  known  as  the 
skeleton  inductor,  allows  the  armature  coils  to  be  easily  re- 
moved from  the  larger  machines,  affords  the  best  possible  ven- 
tilation and  considerably  improves  the  electrical  characteristics 
of  the  machine  with  regard  to  exciting  power  and  regulation, 
the  actual  leakage  in  this  type  of  machine  being  reduced  to 
approximately  5 per  cent.  The  pole  is  so  formed  as  to  give  a 
magnetic  field  varying  as  a sine  function  of  the  angle  from  the 
center  of  the  pole,  which,  with  the  concentrated  winding,  gives 
a sine  wave  of  E.M.F.  This  is  an  important  feature  of  the  in- 
ductor alternator  and  is  very  difficult  to  obtain  in  the  revolving 
field  types  except  with  distributed  windings.  The  peculiar 
electrical  operation  of  this  machine  is  that  the  flux  through  the 
armature  pulsates  through  the  armature  coils  and  swings 
through  a certain  angle  with  respect  to  the  armature  iron. 
This  allows  the  use  of  high  densities  in  the  laminated  iron  with- 
out causing  heating  of  the  same. 

Thq  regulation  of  the  inductor  alternator  can,  of  course,  be 
made  anything  desirable,  and,  in  comparing  this  type  of  ma- 
chine with  that  of  the  revolving  field  alternator,  any  slight  dif- 
ference in  weights  may  not  necessarily  mean  a similar  differ- 
ence in  cost. 

In  comparison  with  revolving  field  machines,  the  inductor 
alternator  possessing  the  same  efficiency  will  have  a higher 
armature  copper  loss  and  a lower  iron  and  field  copper  loss. 
This  accounts  for  high  efficiencies  at  light  loads  and  the  fact 
that  the  iron  in  the  inductor  alternator  armature  heats  but  little 
prevents  local  rise  of  temperature  in  the  armature  coils. 

The  characteristic  points  of  this  type  of  machine  are  as  fol- 
lows: No  revolving  wire;  no  sliding  contacts;  a single  field 
coil ; the  field  coil  entirely  protected  from  mechanical  injury ; 
the  possibility,  in  larger  sizes,  of  removing  the  armature  coil 
without  disturbing  the  machine ; the  small  exciting  power  nec- 
essary; the  sine  wave  of  E.M.F.  with  concentrated  winding; 
the  proportionately  short  length  of  idle  conductor  in  the  arma- 
ture ; the  unequaled  ventilation  of  armature  winding ; the  ab- 
sence of  any  necessity  for  supporting  the  armature  coils  at  the 
end,  and,  in  general,  the  machine  demanding  the  minimum  of 
care  and  attention. 


266 


Rushnwrc: 


IJ.  F.  L, 


REVOLVING  FIELD  ALTERNATORS. 

A tyi)ical  modern  revolving  field  alternator  is  shown  in  Fig. 
5.  The  active  material  of  the  external  stationary  armature  is 
supported  by  a cast-iron  box  frame.  Armature  frames  are 
made  in  a large  variety  of  styles  and  sections  abroad,  but  in 
this  country  the  section  shown  may  be  taken  as  standard.  The 
frame  may  be  divided  either  horizontally  or  vertically,  and  in 
some  of  the  larger  machines  is  divided  into  a greater  number 
of  parts  to  facilitate  shipment  and  erection.  The  box  form 
used  gives  the  best  utilization  of  the  material  and  affords  an 
easy  means  for  ventilating  the  armature  laminations. 

These  laminations  are  held  by  dovetails  cut  into  ribs  cast  on 
the  armature  frame,  which  ribs  run  parallel  with  the  shaft  of  the 


machine.  There  are  also  numerous  methods  for  supporting 
the  laminations  but  this  method  of  dovetail  suspension  is  the 
most  substantial  and  best.  The  laminations  are  divided 
lengthwise  of  the  machine  by  many  ventilating  ducts  which 
allow  the  free  passage  of  air  from  the  revolving  field  and  are 
held  together  by  retainers  at  each  end,  clamped  by  bolts  pass- 
ing entirely  back  of  the  laminations.  This  laminated  iron  is 
punched,  annealed  and  japanned  in  the  same  way  as  previously 
described,  and  its  proper  manufacture  is  one  requiring  great 
knovdedge  and  skill  to  obtain  the  best  results. 

The  armature  coils  are  machine-wound  and  are  completely 


Most  revolving  field  alternators  have  a distributed  winding 
giving  two  or  more  slots  per  phase  and  by  proper  beveling  of 
the  pole  a sine  wave  of  E.M.F.  is  obtained.  The  greater  the 
sub-division  of  the  winding,  the  better  the  wave  form,  and  the 
better  the  opportunities  for  dissipation  of  heat. 

The  proportionally  large  amount  of  space  occupied  by  insula- 
tion in  high  voltage  machines  limits  the  possibilities  of  winding 
distribution  from  both  mechanical  and  commercial  considera- 
tions. Open  slots  allow  the  coils  to  be  machine  wound  and  be 
subjected  to  vacuum  compound  treatment  and  completely  in- 


Fig.  8.  Upper  half  of  ar.natare  frame  without  enh  shields  sho  ving  method  of  supporting 

end  connections. 


October,  1905.] 


Alternating  Current  Generator. 


insulated  before  being  placed  in  the  open  slots.  The  use  of 
open  slots  is  of  great  advantage  in  machines  wound  for  high 
voltages,  as  it  allows  the  complete  insulation  of  the  coil  before 
it  is  placed  on  the  machine,  and  with  the  oil  cloth  insulation 
used  where  the  oil  is  brushed  on  each  wrapping  of  cloth  and 
separately  baked,  the  insulation  of  the  entire  coil  consists  of  a 
large  number  of  coatings  of  an  oil  film,  each  complete  in  itself. 

Stationary  armatures  allow  the  electrical  circuit  to  be  un- 
broken, which  is  of  great  advantage  in  high  voltage  machines. 


268 


Riishmorc: 


[J.F.I., 


siilated  l^efore  being  placed  in  the  machine.  W'ith  cal^le  con- 
ductors this  is  almost  a necessity  in  order  to  o1)tain  firm  coils 
and  to  properly  insulate  the  strands. 

Hig'h  voltage  machines  necessitate  good  insulation  between 
the  conductors  in  a coil,  as  well  as  between  the  conductors  and 
iron,  a matter  not  always  sufficiently  emphasized.  By  com- 
pletely insulating  the  coil  before  placing  it  in  the  slot,  this  may 
be  accomplished,  and  in  high  voltage  machines,  especially  those 
used  as  synchronous  motors,  it  is  a very  important  factor. 


Fig.  10.  Stationary  armatures  for  turbine-generators. 


Open  slots  in  general  necessitate  laminated  pole  pieces, 
which  are,  however,  of  advantage  both  from  a standpoint  of 
symmetrical  construction  and  in  preventing  an  increase  of  iron 
loss  under  load,  even  though  there  may  be  no  Focault  losses  in 
a solid  pole  piece  on  open  circuit.  Laminated  poles  allow  a 
quicker  response  in  voltage  to  any  change  of  excitation. 

Poles  are  fastened  to  revolving  field  rings  in  a large  variety 
of  ways.  Where  the  poles  are  separate  from  the  ring,  they  are 
usually  held  by  bolts  which  enter  keys  running  lengthwise 


October,  1905.]  Alternating  Current  Generator.  269 

through  the  laminated  poles  in  machines  of  comparatively  low 
peripheral  speed,  and  where  the  speed  is  high  the  laminated 
pole  is  dove-tailed  and  keyed  into  the  ring. 

The  development  of  the  revolving  field  alternator  brought 
with  it  the  edge  wound  copper  strip  field  coils,  one  of  the  great 
advantages  of  this  type  of  machine,  and  the  manufacture  of 
which  illustrates  a high  development  of  machine-shop  practice. 


This  strip-wound  field  coil  is  of  excellent  mechanical  structure, 
which  cannot  get  out  of  shape  and  which  is  in  very  little  danger 
of  injury  from  over-heating*,  the  external  surface  of  the  coil 
being  entirely  exposed  to  the  air,  it  being  impossible  for  any 
local  rise  of  temperature  to  take  place. 

The  proximity  of  the  field  coil  to  the  armature  surface  acts 
as  a damping  device  and  is  in  most  cases  sufficient  preventive 
against  hunting  troubles. 


Fig.  9.  Revolving  Held  showing  details  of  mechanical  construction,  illustrating  careful  considera- 
tion of  stresses  due  to  centrifugal  force. 


270 


Ritshmorc: 


[J.  F.  L, 


Solid  field  rings  are  in  this  country  universally  made  of  steel 
and  made  cast  in  one  piece  with  the  arms  and  hub,  or  the  latter 
may  be  made  of  cast-iron  1)olted  to  the  field  ring. 

The  ventilation  of  the  revolving  field  alternator  is  somewhat 
inferior  to  that  of  the  inductor,  and  to  overcome  this  a number 
of  methods  of  construction  are  used.  One  of  these  consists  in 
casting  holes  in  the  field  ring  between  the  poles  and  by  suitable 
end  rings  and  cross-webs  which  act  as  fans.  Fig.  6. 

Engine-driven  revolving  field  alternators  of  large  output. 


Fig.  11.  Kevolving  field  for  a 5000  KW.  alternating  current  turbine  generator. 


especially  for  the  higher  frequencies,  are  often  of  such  dimen- 
sions that  the  revolving  field  and  fly-wheel  can  \'ery  suitably  be 
combined.  In  such  cases  the  fly-wheel  is  usually  built  up  of 
steel  plates. 


WATER  WHEEL  GENERATORS. 

The  use  of  heads  ranging  from  1,500  to  2,300  ft.,  and  the 
demand  for  units  of  large  output,  in  many  cases  K.W., 


October,  1905.]  Alternating  Current  Generator.  271 

has  led  to  the  development  of  a water-wheel  type  of  generator, 
machines  and  the  standard  revolving  held  generators  is  princi- 
Such  generators  must  be  built  to  stand  an  increase  of  speed  of 


Fig.  12.  5000  KW.  Curtis  steam  turbine  direct  connected  to  5000  KW.  three-phase  alternating 

current  generator. 

something  less  than  100  per  cent.,  and  for  this  reason  the  me- 
chanical design  takes  precedence  over  the  electrical. 

The  difficulty  of  hauling  these  machines  for  distances  up  to 
forty  miles  to  inaccessible  power  house  locations  and  over  bad 


Jour.  Franklin  Inst.,  Vol.  CLX,  October,  1903.  {Rnshmore) 


:i.  .■)()(»•  K' .W .( 'iirt  IS  1 iirhiiic  H(‘l  w itli  iiuxiliarics. 


October,  1905.] 


273 


Alternating  Current  Generator. 

roads  often  influences  the  mechanical  design.  An  illustration 
of  a machine  designed  for  such  conditions  is  shown  in  Figs. 
Nos.  7,  8,  9.  This  machine  was  built  by  the  Stanley  Elec- 
tric Mfg.  Co.  for  the  California  Gas  and  Electric  Corporation, 
and  is  a 5,000  K.W.  three-phase  revolving  field  generator,  run- 
ning at  400  revolutions  and  giving  2,400  volts,  which  voltage 
is  raised  by  transformers  to  60,000. 

The  stationary  armature  is  a more  or  less  standard  construc- 
tion, except  that  the  weight  is  reduced  to  a minimum  and  the' 
details  of  every  part  are  most  carefully  designed  in  order  to 
make  the  structure  as  light  as  is  consistent  with  necessary 
strength.  The  revolving  field  is  of  novel  construction.  The 
ring  and  poles  are  built  up  of  laminated  steel  sheets,  each 
punching  covering  two  poles  and  the  section  between  them. 
In  one  punching  the  pole  part  on  one  end  extends  to  the  air 
gap;  on  the  other  to  the  bottom  of  the  pole  tip.  These  punch- 
ings,  thick,  are  built  up  in  pairs.  In  this  way  the  resultant 
structure  gives  a solid  pole  while  the  space  between  the  poles 
consists  of  alternate  spaces  of  air  gap  and  the  same  amount 
of  laminated  iron.  The  field  coils  are  cemented  into  one  solid 
structure  and  each  individual  coil,  as  well  as  every  separate  part 
of  the  revolving  field,  is  carefully  weighed  and  balanced.  The 
revolving  field  ring,  built  up  of  laminations,  is  mounted  on  the 
hub  by  steel  end  plates,  as  shown,  and  is  divided  into  two  parts 
to  facilitate  transportation  by  the  insertion  of  two  plates  in  the 
center,  which  are  similar  to  the  end  plates,  except  for  the  con- 
nection to  the  hub.  After  the  field  coils  are  placed  on  the  pole, 
the  tips,  which  are  inserted  between  the  alternate  laminations, 
are  then  put  in  place  and  bolts  running  lengthwise  through 
these  tips  and  the  alternate  projecting  pole  pieces,  passing  also 
through  retainers  over  the  ends  of  the  field  coils  and  holding 
same  in  place. 

TURBO-ALTERNATORS.  ^ 

In  turbo-alternators,  the  considerations  of  the  mechanical 
design  are  of  first  importance,  and  the  difference  between  these 
machines  and  the  standard  revolving  field  generators  is  princi- 
pally one  of  comparative  output  and  speed,  and  of  methods  and 
devices  for  supporting  the  structure  under  the  necessarily  great 
mechanical  strains. 

Vor.  CLX.  No.  958 


18 


274 


Notes  and  Comments. 


[J.  F.  I., 


Laminated  steel  is  a material  of  known  strength  which  can 
be  relied  upon,  and,  therefore,  is  largely  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  revolving  field  for  turbo  alternators.  The  central 
ring  is  built  up  of  these  steel  sheets  and  so  arranged  that  the 
poles  are  built  up  and  riveted  separately,  and  introduced  end- 
wise into  the  ring  structure  through  proper  dovetails  and  are 
held  firmly  in  place  by  keys.  The  unbalanced  component  of 
centrifugal  force  at  right  angles  to  the  side  of  the  field  coil  is 
taken  into  consideration  by  placing  proper  wedges  between 
adjacent  coils.  Straps  passing  over  the  coil  ends  securely  hold 
these  parts  in  place.  Other  types  of  turbo  alternator  construc- 
tion are  used,  but  that  shown  in  Figs.  lo,  ii,  12,  13,  may  be 
taken  as  representative  of  the  vertical  type  used  in  this  country 
in  connection  with  the  Curtis  turbine. 


ALLAYING  THE  DUST  NUISANCE  ON  HIGHROADS. 

For  some  time  past  experiments  have  been  carried  out  in  England  with 
several  media  such  as  westrumite,  and  so  forth,  for  overcoming  the  dust 
nuisance  on  the  high  roads,  which  is  created  more  especially  by  automo- 
biles. These  materials,  however,  have  proven  only  partially  successful.  The 
results  of  some  later  experiments  in  this  direction  which  have  been  carried 
out  in  Liverpool  were  recently  described  by  Mr.  A.  Lyle  Rathbone.  deputy- 
chairman  of  the  Liverpool  Health  Committee  m a lecture  at  Liveipool. 
The  surface  of  a selected  roadway  was  coated  with  creosote  oil  mixed  with 
resin.  This  mixture  gave  the  cleanest  and  nicest  appearance,  while  the  sur- 
face coated  with  ordinarv  petroleum  was  the  least  lasting.  Next  in  order 
came  mixtures  of  creosote  oil  with  tallow,  and  hot  creosote  oil.  Heavy 
coal  tar  waste  oil  lasted  rather  longer  than  the  creosote  oil,  and  was  very 
much  cheaper.  Considering  the  experiments  as  a whole,  the  result  would 
seem  to  point  to  eventual  success  with  the  use  of  some  classes  of  oil  in  tne 
place  of  water  on  macadam  roads. — Scienfitic  American. 


EFFECT  OF  HIGH  TEMPERATURE  ON  THE  STRENGTH  OF 

STEEL. 

Professor  Bach  has  made  some  experiments  to  determine  the  effects  of 
high  temperature  on  the  strength  of  steel,  using  groups  of  four  bars  each. 
The  temperature  of  the  testing  of  the  several  groups  were:  Atmospheric, 
390,  570,  750,  930  and  1020  degrees  F.  On  one  bar  the  test  at  ordinary  tem- 
perature showed  a strength  of  54,000  pounds  per  square  inch  and  an  elonga- 
tion of  26,3  per  cent.  The  strength  appeared  to  increase  with  rise  of  tem- 
perature, until  at  750  deg.  the  figure  stood  at  60,300  pounds,  while  above  this 
temperature  the  strength  decreased  rapidly  until  at  1020  degrees  it  was  only 
26,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 


October,  1905.] 


Mica  and  the  Mica  Industry. 


275 


CHEMICAL  SECTION 


*Mica  and  the  Mica  Industry. 

By  George  Wetmore  CoLLES.f 


[The  subject  is  treated  in  eight  principal  captions:  Mineralogy,  geology,  geographical  distribu 
tion,  history,  mining,  uses,  statistics  and  conclusions.  Tne  treatment  is  industrial  rather  than 
theoretical  or  scientific,  and  aims  at  setting  forth  the  present,  past  and  probable  future  of  mica- 
mining in  this  and  other  countries.  The  first  instalment  dealt  with  the  characteristics  of  the 
various  species  of  mica.  The  present  part  deals  with  the  geology  of  the  micas,— Thk  Editor.] 

IL  GEOLOGY. 

Micas  of  the  perissad  class  (as  above  indicated),  are  found 
in  or  derived  from  igneous,  that  is  to  say,  intrusive  or  meta- 
morphic  rocks.  They  are  the  commonest  of  minerals,  common 
in  the  sense  of  being  widely  distributed,  though  constituting 
but  a relatively  small  proportion  of  the  rocks  in  which  they 
occur.  These  micas  constitute  the  most  conspicuous  element 
in  granites,  and  in  most  schists  and  gneisses,  as  well  as  in  that 
form  of  intrusive  rock  known  as  pegmatite. 

The  artiad  micas,  on  the  contrary,  do  not  occur  (unless  possi- 
bly in  minute  crystals  of  the  ferrous  kinds)  in  igneous  rocks, 
but  are  found  associated  principally  with  crystalline  lime  and 
magnesian  rocks,  such  as  calcite  and  pyroxene.  The  origin  of 
these  two  classes  will  therefore  be  considered  independently. 

In  addition  to  these  sources  of  mica,  it  is  a very  common 
constituent  of  many  fragmental  rocks,  ordinary  quartz-sand, 
etc.  Whenever  a mica-bearing  rock  is  eroded  by  water,  parti- 
cles of  the  mica  which  it  contains  are  carried  with  it  and  depos- 
ited in  beds  somewhere  in  the  course  of  the  stream.  Al- 
though mica  is  a heavy  mineral  (sp.  gr.  2.6  to  3.2)  its  flaky 
nature  causes  it  to  be  carried  along  or  floated  with  an  equal 
facility  to  lighter  materials,  such  as  sand,  and  when  deposited 
with  the  latter  in  large  quantities,  the  flakes  falling  naturally 
into  a horizontal  position,  and  the  strata  being  afterwards  con- 
solidated, a schistose  rock  is  formed,  which  easily  splits  by  rea- 
son of  the  lack  of  cohesion  between  the  mica  plates. 


*Read  by  title,  f Copyright,  1905,  by  George  Wetmore  Colies. 


276 


Colies: 


[J.  F.  I., 


THE  GRANITIC  MICAS. 

Such  is  doubtless  the  origin  of  most  micaceous  schists;  but 
there  are  other  rocks  of  a similar  class  and  quality,  which  are  to 
be  classed  rather  as  metamorphic,  that  is  to  say,  rocks  of  a sedi- 
mentary or  fragmental  origin,  but  which,  when  deposited,  con- 
tained no  mica,  and  in  which  the  mica  has  been  developed  by  a 
process  of  slow  crystallization  under  the  continued  application 
of  heat.  We  pass  thus  gradually  from  the  fragmental  schists 
to  gneiss,  and  go  still  further  on  the  same  lines  from  gneiss  to 
granite,  in  which  the  bedding  of  the  material  has  been  entirely 
lost ; and  finally  from  granite  to  pegmatite,  which  latter  may  be 
described  roughly  as  a kind  of  gigantic  granite — a rock  formed 
of  the  same  materials  but  in  very  much  larger  crystals.* 

Now,  granite  is  a rock  composed  of  three  principal  constitu- 
ents, namely,  mica,  feldspar  and  quartz,  and  these  minerals,  as 
such,  are  not  necessarily  present  in  the  rocks  from  which  they 
have  been  formed.  Their  common  occurrence,  and  more  par- 
ticularly that  of  mica,  in  rocks  which  have  been  altered  by  heat 
from  rocks  which  did  not  contain  them,  is  an  evidence  that, 
given  the  materials — alumina,  potash,  silica  and  water — and 
the  necessary  conditions,  these  materials  will  come  together 
and  crystallize  out  into  mica  of  their  own  accord.  That  this  is 
what  happens,  when  a rock  of  sedimentary  origin  is  altered  to 
gneiss,  is  readily  shown  to  be  the  case  by  the  examination  of  a 
region  of  local  metamorphism ; that  is,  by  examining  the  nature 
of  the  ground  adjacent  to  a dike  of  igneous  rock,  for  example, 
when  what  has  been  changed  to  gneiss  close  to  the  dike  is,  on 
following  it  back,  found  to  pass  gradually  into  sandstone,  etc., 
the  mica  and  other  crystals  making  their  appearance  increas- 
ingly as  we  approach  the  dike. 

Proceeding  a step  further  from  gneiss  to  granite,  we  have 
rock  which  results  from  a still  further  heating  of  the  gneiss  to 
at  least  a plastic  condition,  in  which  the  materials  have  so  rear- 
ranged themselves  that  the  bedding  is  completely  lost.  The 
heat  has  been  sufficiently  continued  and  evenly  maintained  to 
permit  the  materials  to  group  themselves  into  larger  crystals. 


*There  are  several  differences  between  granite  and  pegmatite  besides  the 
mere  size  of  the  crystals,  that  point  to  a difference  in  kind  as  well  as  one 
of  degree.  One  of  these  is  the  different  character  of  the  mica  crystals. 


October,  1905.]  Mica  and  the  Mica  Industry-  277 

It  is  a well-understood  principle  that  the  size  of  the  crystals 
formed  increases  with  the  slowness  of  the  action,  and  this  prin- 
ciple is  clearly  illustrated  throughout  the  igneous  rocks,  and  as- 
sists us  in  explaining  the  manner  of  their  formation.  The 
same  rock,  for  instance,  in  a volcanic  vent,  which  will  on  the 
surface  form  a close-grained,  amorphous  or  aphanitic  lava,  will 
be  found  to  pass  downwardly  into  a more  crystalline  form  until 
we  reach  the  condition  of  granite. 

The  pegmatic  dikes  in  which  the  commercial  mica  occurs 
are,  as  before  stated,  composed  of  the  same  three  body-miner- 
als as  in  granite;  but  the  crystals  are  often  enormous,  weigh- 
ing several  thousand  pounds.  The  mica  in  these  dikes  is  al- 
ways in  the  form  of  more  or  less  perfect  crystals,  called  by 
miners  blocks  or  ‘‘books.”  The  feldspar  is  also  more  or  less 
perfectly  crystallized,  but  much  of  it  is  massive,  and  the  bulk  of 
the  quartz  is  also  massive.  It  is  deserving  of  note,  further, 
that  while  quartz  veins*  are  of  common  occurrence,  and  while 
dikes  of  feldspar  and  quartz  occur  together  without  the  mica — 
in  fact  about  as  frequently  as  with  it — the  mica  itself,  which 
constitutes  the  least  bulk  of  the  vein,  is  never  found  without 
both  the  feldspar  and  quartz. 

It  is  also  important  to  note  in  this  place  that  the  mica  crystals 
as  taken  from  the  dike,  are  of  rough,  opaque  and  irregular  ex- 
terior, and  have  rounded  ends  and  angles.  The  outermost 
plates,  and  the  edges  of  all  the  plates,  are  valueless,  and  have 
obviously  either  (i)  suffered  alteration  from  their  original  form, 
or  (2)  never  quite  reached  the  constitution  of  mica,  strictly 
speaking. 

With  these  preliminary  considerations  we  are  in:  position  to 
consider,  first  the  age  of  the  dikes,  and  afterward  the  origin  of 
the  mica. 

Age  and  Origin  of  the  Pegmatite  Dikes. 

The  mica-bearing  dikes  in  New  Hampshire,  North  Carolina, 
South  Dakota  and  India,  and  probably  in  all  other  places  where 


*The  net-work  of  coarse  and  fine  quartz  veins  which  commonly  traverse 
the  dikes  and  country  rocks  are  merely  an  aqueous  filling  of  cracks  formed  by 
the  folding  and  faulting  of  the  rocks,  and  must  not  be  confounded  with 
dikes  of  igneous  origin. 


278 


Colies: 


[J.  F.  L, 


mica  has  been  mined,  occur  in  rocks  of  the  Archaean  age,  the 
first  age  known  to  geological  history.  The  rocks  of  this  age 
are  not,  however,  either  wholly  or  mainly  igneous,  but,  like 
those  of  subsequent  ages,  are  principally  bedded  or  seni- 
mentary  rocks,  which  were  once  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  a 
body  of  water.  All,  or  nearly  all,  the  rocks  of  the  Archaean 
series,  so  far  as  known,  have  undergone  metamorphic 
action,  and  become  more  or  less  crystallized.  Into 
and  through  these  rocks,  which  themselves  contain 
mica  in  large  quantities,  but  in  minute  scales,  have 
been  injected  the  dikes  in  question  and  take  the  form  of 
sheets  more  or  less  continuous  and  irregular,  cutting  across  or 
between  the  strata  which  they  intersect.  Now,  it  does  not  fol- 
low, because  these  are  found  in  Archaean  rocks,  that  they  have 
been  formed  in  Archaean  time,  as  it  is  clear  that,  if  no  reasons 
to  the  contrary  exist,  they  might  have  been  formed  at  any 
subsequent  epoch ; but  I believe  that  such  reasons  do  exist,  and 
that  they  show  quite  clearly  that  these  dikes  were  formed 
shortly  after  the  formation  of  the  rocks  themselves,  at  least 
in  the  case  of  the  North  Carolina  series,  to  which  the  following 
remarks  have  application  more  particularly,  although  I believe 
in  a general  way  they  will  apply  to  other  regions  where  mica 
dikes  are  found. 

These  dikes,  generally  speaking,  follow  the  strike  and  dip  of 
the  country  rock ; that  is  to  say,  are  interposed  rather  between 
the  layers  than  across  them,  though  frequently  breaking  from 
one  to  another,  besides  branching  out  and  becoming  divided, 
and  being  of  very  irregular  width.  A single  outcrop  may  ex- 
tend several  hundred  feet  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
may  be  as  much  as  50  to  100  feet  in  width  (still  wider  ones  have 
been  found),  or  may  have  any  dimensions  less  than  these.  The 
outcrop  being  “nipped”  at  any  point  (that  is,  tapering  down  to 
nothing),  may  begin  again  a little  further  on  or  at  one  side  of 
the  point  of  nipping.  (See  Fig.  20.)  The  distribution  of  the 
mica  in  the  vein  is  not  uniform,  nor  is  it  entirely  irregular.  It 
has  a tendency  to  gather  into  bunches,  or  in  strings  of  crystals. 
It  may  be  found  ranged  along  either  or  both  walls  of  the  dike, 
or  bunched  in  the  recesses  thereof,  or  in  branches  and  pockets 
of  the  dike,  or  again,  packed  in  bunches  in  the  center  at  inter- 
vals. Fig.  17  illustrates  some  of  these  peculiarities. 


October,  1905.] 


Mica  and  the  Mica  Industry • 


279 


The  influence  of  the  wall  rock  on  the 
material  of  the  enclosed  dike  is  often 
distinctly  noticeable.  Mica-bearing 
dikes  predominate  especially  where  they 
interpenetrate  schists  and  micaceous 
gneisses ; but  not  necessarily  so,  as  good 
mica-bearing  dikes  also  penetrate  strata 
containing  little  mica.  In  India,  how- 
Fig.  17.  Section  of  Point  Fizzle  evcr,  tliis  peculiarity  secuis  to  bc  very 

(Cioudland)  mine,  a,  dike;  ^ 

mica.  (After  Kerr.)  StrOUgly  brOUgllt  OUt,  aild  SO  inucll  SO 

that  one  writer  on  the  subject  assumes  it  as  a proof  of  the 
aqueous  rather  than  the  igneous  origin  of  the  dikes.*  The 
boundaries  of  the  dikes  are  usually  well  defined  and  in  close 
contact  with  the  wall-rock,  though  a clay  selvage  has  been  ob- 
served at  the  juncture.  This  is  undoubtedly  formed  by  the 
decomposition  of  the  dike-material  through  the  action  of 
water  in  the  usual  manner  of  feldspar.  Fragments  of  wall  rock 
are  occasionally  found  in  the  dike,  and  Figure  18  is  an  example 
of  a horse  of  wall  rock  running  parallel  to  the  dike,  the  only 
example  known  in  North  Carolina  of  this  structure. 


Fig.  18.  Section  in  Silvers  Mine  (after  Kerr). 
a,  country  rock;  J),  horse  of  same;  c,  dike  mate- 
rial; cl,  quartz  vein;  e,  mica. 

In  considering  the  origin  of  these  dikes  it  seems  to  have  been 
generally  assumed  that  the  dike-material  was  projected  up- 
wards while  they  lay  in  their  present  position.  I cannot  see 
any  reason  for  adopting  this  view,  while,  on  the  contrary,  there 
appear  to  me  to  be  strong  reasons  for  believing  them  to  have 
been  formed  while  the  rocks  were  horizontally  bedded.  More- 
over, with  a few  possible  exceptions,  there  is  nothing  to  show 


*A,  Mervyn  Smith  in  “Mica  Mining  in  Bengal,  India.”  Trans.  Inst. 
Min.  and  Met.,  Vol.  vii,  p.  170.  This  theory  is  referred  to  later,  (See 
discussion  on  p.  282  et  seq. 


28o 


Colies: 


[].  F.  L, 


that  the  fissures,  in  which  they  lie,  were  ducts  which  led  the 
^material  in  a stream  from  some  heated  source  below  to  the  sur- 
iface;but,on  the  contrary, they  are  distinctly  of  a laccolithic  char- 
acter; in  other  words,  they  were  the  mere  filling  of  cracks 
which  extended  laterally  from  the  source  of  molten  material, 
probably  ramifying  from  this  source  and  ending  in  a cul  de  sac. 

Figures  19  and  20  represent  graphically  the  general  manner 
in  which  the  dikes  may  be  supposed  to  have  been  formed. 

A 


Figure  19  shows  a vertical  cross-section  of  a part  of  the  bedded 
rocks  and  a column  of  fluid  or  semi-fluid  rock-material  injected 
upward  into  them  by  pressure  from  below,  and  naturally  raising 
the  strata  above  it.  The  rocks  are  supposed  to  be  deeply  bur- 
ied under  overlying  strata,  and  the  heat  to  increase  down- 
wardly until  at  their  lower  portion  they  become  sufflciently 
fluid  to  be  forced  upwardly  in  the  manner  indicated,  raising  the 
overlying  rocks.  For  the  force  to  accomplish  such  an  injection, 
we  would  only  need  to  look  as  far  as  the  difference  in  specific 
gravity  between  the  solid  and  fused  material,  and  the  expan- 
sion of  the  water  contained  in  the  latter — I will  not  say  steam, 
as  is  done  by  some  writers,  for  it  is  clear  that  steam  could 
hardly — at  any  rate  did  not — exist  under  this  pressure  and 
the  comparatively  low  temperature  which  must  be  assumed. 
Whether  the  fissures  were  made  by  the  pressure  of  the  material 
which  filled  them  or  by  some  other  agency,  or  by  both  acting  to- 


October,  1905.]  Mica  and  the  Mica  Industry ^ 281 

gether,  is  a question  which  need  not  here  be  answered.  After 
the  material  filled  the  fissures  an  excessively  slow  cooling  rate 
is  demanded  by  the  condition  of  the  dikes,  as  we  find  them,  by 
reason  of  the  immense  size  of  the  crystals.  Supposing,  then, 
dikes  to  have  been  thus  formed  and  cooled,  and  subsequently 
the  rocks  to  have  been  tilted  through  an  angle  a.  Fig.  19,  and 
■erosion  taken  place  until  the  surface  of  the  ground  lies  on  the 
plane  AB,  the  appearance  of  said  surface  would  then  be  as 
shown  in  Fig.  20,  which  represents  the  dikes  as  we  actually  find 
them. 

The  reasons  for  the  conclusions  above  adopted  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

(i)  The  country  rock  shows  a regional  and  not  merely 
local  metamorphism,  as  it  would  if  it  had  been  near  the  surface 
Avhen  the  dikes  were  intruded,  and  such  metamorphism  were 
caused  by  the  heat  of  the  dike-material  itself.  In  other  words, 
the  metamorphism  of  the  rocks  is  comparatively  uniform 
throughout  the  entire  area  under  consideration.  Such  meta- 
morphism implies  that  the  rocks  must  have  been  buried  very 
deeply  in  the  earth,  at  least  several  miles  below  the  surface. 
Now,  that  there  has  been  an  enormous  denudation  of  the 
Archaean  rocks, — greater,  perhaps,  than  that  of  any  subse- 
quent series, — is  clear  when  we  consider  that  the  rocks  of  all 
subsequent  formations  have  been  made  from  them.  We  must 
suppose,  then,  that  the  existing  rocks  were  formerly  overlaid 
by  a thickness  of  several  miles  of  the  same  system,  and  it  is  very 
improbable  that  much  folding  could  have  taken  place  before 
these  subsequent  rocks  were  laid  down,  or  yet  while  they  were 
very  deeply  buried,  because  we  know  that  much  folding  has 
taken  place  since  then,  which,  of  course,  tends  to  tilt  the  rocks 
always  more  steeply  and  never  to  return  them  to  their  horizon- 
tal position.  The  same  holds  good  even  if  the  strata  overlying 
them  were  of  a later  age,  for  example,  the  Silurian  or  Carbon- 
iferous.* 

2.  The  material  of  the  dikes  had  no  outlet  to  the  surface,  as 
it  would,  have  had  if  the  rocks  had  been  tilted  (because  the 
pressure  would  have  been  exerted  to  split  a passage  open  in- 
stead of  to  raise  the  rocks) ; because  (a)  we  find  no  deposits  of 
material  which  would  indicate  such  outflow ; (b)  the  vein  would 
have  been  banded,  which  it  is  not,  or  crystallized  normal  to  the 


282 


Colles: 


[J.  F.  I., 


surface,  indicating  a cooling  from  the  exterior  inwardly,  which 
it  is  not ; and  (c)  because  the  continued  or  interrupted  flow 
through  the  fissure  would  have  prevented  the  formation  of  any 
large  crystals.  With  a few  possible  exceptions,  like  that  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  i8,  the  dikes  are  of  a simple  structure,  that  is  to 
say,  show  that  like  conditions  existed  throughout,  and  no  bands 
nor  orientation  of  the  crystals  (unless  it  be  that  of  the  mica 
crystals  inter  se)  can  be  observed. 

3.  To  permit  the  slow  rate  of  cooling  demanded  by  the  large- 
sized crystals  and  the  other  conditions  just  specified,  the  coun- 
try rock  must  have  been  raised  to  a temperature  approximating, 
if  not  equal,  to  that  of  the  fused  material,  thus  constituting  a 
mass  perhaps  several  miles  thick,  which  would  require  centuries 
to  cool  down  to  the  condition  of  complete  solidification.  This  of 
itself  indicates  horizontal  strata  for  the  reason  above  indicated, 
viz.,  that  the  metamorphism  took  place  before  the  tilting  of  the 
strata. 

The  aqueous  theory  of  these  dikes  deserves  mention  here  as 
it  has  been  seriously  put  forward  by  at  least  one  writer.  The 
reasons  given  for  this  theory  are  as  follows : (i)  “in  many  places 
the  veins  die  out  in  depth  and  in  length;”  (2)  “the  vein  matter 
partakes  of  the  quality  of  the  including  rock, — quartz,  feldspar, 
and  mica  predominating,  as  the  lode  traverses  rocks  containing 
these  minerals  in  excess;”  (3)  “the  crystallization  of  the  vein 
matter  varies  within  very  short  distances,  not  being  at  all  homo- 
geneous as  one  would  expect  in  an  igneous  dike.  In  places  the 
crystals  of  mica  are  two  feet  long,  eighteen  inches  wide  and  nine 


*From  a consideration  of  the  positions  of  the  strata,  J.  D.  Dana  con- 
cludes that  “no  upturning  took  place  over  the  Appalachian  ^Mountains  south- 
east (sic)  of  New  England  until  the  Carboniferous  Age  was  approaching,  or 
had  reached  its  end.” 

A like  conclusion  is  reached  by  J.  A.  Holmes,  who  has  shown  that  the 
pegmatite  dikes  intersect  the  Archaean  of  Arizona,  where  it  is  cut  through 
by  the  Colorado  River  in  the  Grand  Canyon,  coming  up  to  the  base  of  the 
Algonkian  (the  series  next  following  the  Archaean),  which  overlies  these 
rocks,  and  consequently  that  the  dikes  were  formed  before  the  Algonkian 
period.  In  this  case,  however,  the  tilting  of  the  rocks  must  have  taken 
place  during  the  Archaean  itself,  and  consequently  the  intrusion  of  the 
dikes  at  a period  long  preceding  even  that  comparative!}"  early  epoch. 


October,  1905.]  Mica  and  the  Mica  Industry.  283 

inches  thick.  Within  a few  hundred  feet  on  either  side  of  this 
spot  the  mica  books  are  small  and  worthless.”* 

Not  only  are  the  reasons  so  given  to  support  this  theory 
quite  inadequate  and  inconclusive,  but  the  theory  is  open  to 
other  objections  which  appear  to  me  quite  insuperable.  Ap- 
parently it  is  based  on  the  assumption  of  open  fissures  formed 
in  the  rock,  into  which  ground  waters  carrying  dissolved  con- 
stituents of  the  country  rock  have  flowed  and  evaporated,  thus 
leaving  behind  the  dissolved  matter  as  a crystalline  residue.  To 
answer  first  the  three  reasons  supposed  to  support  the  theory : 
(i)  The  fact  that  the  veins  die  out  in  depth  and  length  does  not 
necessarily  imply  this  theory  more  than  another,  as  we  have 
seen.  (2)  The  influence  of  the  substances  of  the  wall-rocks 
can  be  explained  equally  well  on  the  igneous  theory ; in  fact 
such  influence  is  commonly  felt  in  igneous  dikes.  It  is  frequent 
for  the  materials  of  intrusive  and  intruded  rocks  to  become 
interchanged  through  metamorphism, — not,  however,  that  this 
has  been  the  case  here.  Such  influence  is  readily  explained, 
more  particularly  where  the  wall  rock  is  a fi'able  mica  schist  or 
the  like,  on  the  assumption  that  the  fissure  produced  by  the 
Assuring  forces  was  not  a clean  one,  but  that  much  of  the  rock- 
material  was  pulverized  and  mingled  with  the  vein-material  and 
subsequently  dissolved  therein  and  recrystallized.  Besides,  sup- 
posing the  vein  material  to  be  merely  melted  wall-material  from 
further  down,  it  would  naturally  have  a similar  constitution. 
(3)  That  the  constitution  of  an  igneous  magma  should  be  not 
strictly  homogeneous,  but  should  vary  within  distances  of  a few 
hundred  feet,  is  really  no  stranger  than  that  an  aqueous  solu- 
tion should  do  the  same  thing. 

The  most  obvious  objection  to  the  aqueous  theory  is,  that  it 
presupposes  fissures  or  voids  in  the  rock  which  could  hardly 
have  existed.  Either  (i)  such  fissures  must  be  formed  while 
the  rocks  are  still  horizontal,  or  (2)  after  the  rocks  had  been 
tilted,  in  which  case  they  must  have  extended  from  the  surface 
downward. The  first  assumption,  in  view  of  the  great  weight  of 
overlying  rock,  is  obviously  untenable.  The  second  is  almost 
if  not  quite  equally  as  untenable,  by  reason  of  the  lateral  press- 
ure on  the  earth’s  crust  which  would  close  the  fissures.  Such 


*A.  Mervyn  Smith,  loc.  cit. 


284 


Colles: 


[J.  F.  I., 


fissures  are  indeed  formed  in  the  course  of  mountain-making 
upheavals  l;ut  they  are  of  a temporary  nature,  and  are  quickly 
filled  with  debris  from  the  surface,  which  could  not  fail  to  show 
in  the  vein.  Besides,  as  we  have  seen,  the  dikes  have,  in  many 
cases  at  least,  been  formed  before  the  rocks  were  tilted.  I con- 
sider this  reason  alone  conclusive  against  the  aqueous  theory. 
Further,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  (i)  the  constituents  of 
such  veins,  if  formed,  would  be  banded  and  would  show  a crys- 
tallization normal  to  the  surface,  and  this  as  we  have  seen 
really  never  happens;  (2)  the  water  would  evaporate  too 
quickly  to  produce  large  crystals ; (3)  the  mica  portion  of  the 
vein-constituents  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  in  fact  in  any  other 
liquid,  at  surface  temperatures  and  pressures.  To  suppose 
them  to  have  dissolved  out  of  the  rocks  and  recrystallized  by 
the  action  of  water,  is  no  more  reasonable  than  to  suppose  that 
the  mica  had  been  conveyed  there  bodily.  This  fact  also  ap- 
pears to  me  conclusive  against  the  aqueous  theory.  In  fact, 
the  crystallization  of  mica,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowl- 
edge, implies  the  presence  of  heat. 

Origin  of  the  Mica. 

Having  thus  determined  the  age  and  manner  of  formation 
of  the  dikes,  it  remains  to  consider  how  the  mica  was  formed 
and  reached  its  present  position.  Three  views  have  been  pro- 
posed: (i)  that  the  mica  crystals  were  formed  in  the  fused 
rock-mass  before  the  latter  was  injected  into  the  fissures  to 
form  dikes;  (2)  that  the  mica  existed  separately  as  such  in  the 
fused  mass  at  the  time  of  intrusion,  having  been  formed  further 
down ; and  (3)  that  the  mica,  quartz  and  feldspar  all  existed  to- 
gether in  a homogeneous  solution  both  before  and  after  the  in- 
trusion of  the  dike  material,  and  that  the  several  materials  crys- 
tallized out  one  after  the  other  in  the  same  manner,  as  for  ex- 
ample, salt  crystallizes  out  as  a result  of  mixing  soda  and  hydro- 
chloric acid ; the  several  materials  being  brought  together  by 
chemical  attraction  in  either  case.  That  the  third  theory,  or 
rather  a modification  of  it,  is  the  only  rational  one  of  the  three 
can,  I think,  be  readily  shown  to  be  the  case. 

First,  however,  we  must  consider  which  of  the  three  princi- 
pal materials  of  the  dike  reached  the  solid  condition  first. 
Under  conditions  as  we  know  them  in  the  laboratory,  the  feld- 


October,  1905.]  Mica  and  the  Mica  Industry-  285 

spar  has  about  the  lowest  and  quartz  the  highest  melting  point 
of  the  three,  the  mica  occupying  an  intermediate  though  some- 
what variable  position;  but  under  conditions  of  high  pressure 
and  temperature,  and  added  to  these  the  elements  of  water, 
these  conditions  may  be  widely  different.  That  water  must  have 
been  present  is  to  be  taken  for  granted,  both  because  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  assume  a high  enough  temperature  to  have  produced 
the  effects  without  it,  and  also  because  it  is  present  in  the  mica ; 
as  well  as  from  the  fact  that  steam  is  always  given  off  in  vol- 
canic action. 

The  mica  and  feldspar  are  in  fact  both  crystallized  in  a mas- 
sive quartz  matrix.  The  mica  plates  have  left  their  marks  both 
on  the  feldspar  and  on  the  quartz.  It  is  clear  that  the  mica 
could  not  have  crystallized  after  the  other  two  had  solidified 
around  it,  therefore  it  is  tolerably  clear  that  the  mica  crystal- 
lized first,  or  at  least  concomitantly  with  the  feldspar.  We 
may  assume  that  the  feldspar  and  quartz  together  formed  a ve- 
hicle for  the  mica.  The  crystalline  form  of  the  feldspar  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  it  separated  out  from  the  magma  after 
the  mica,  leaving  the  quartz  behind  to  solidify  last.  If  the 
quartz  still  contained  water  (which  would  have  made  it  more 
soluble)  this  has  been  subsequently  driven  off. 

If  the  mica  had  been  carried  up  in  solid  crystals  mixed  with 
the  magma,  we  should  here  find  it  (i)  all  arranged  on  the  hang- 
ing wall,  to  which  it  would  have  floated  as  soon  as  the  magma 
came  to  rest,  supposing  it  to  have  been  lighter  than  the  latter ; 
or  (2)  it  would  have  sunk  to  the  bottom  and  we  should  And  it 
all  on  the  foot-wall  of  the  dike,  had  it  been  heavier  than  the 
magma.  Furthermore,  it  is  utterly  impossible  that  small 
branches  of  the  dike  could  have  been  found  packed  full  of  mica 
crystals ; in  short,  this  theory  is  obviously  untenable. 

That  mica  may  have  existed  as  such  in  solution  in  the  magma 
may  well  be  admitted,  but  the  question  as  to  whether  it  existed 
in  any  special  combination  apart  from  the  other  elements,  is 
about  as  futile  as  a like  question  with  regard  to  all  chemical 
solution.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  arrangement  of  the  crystals 
does  not  admit  of  any  general  theory,  which  does  not  presup- 
pose that  all  the  elements  of  the  dike  were  uniformly  mixed 
and  tolerably  homogeneous  at  the  time  they  entered  the  Ass- 
ures in  which  they  cooled.  Formed  as  they  were  from  rocks 


286 


Colles: 


[].  F.  I., 


containing  the  same  materials,  and,  indeed,  the  same  minerals 
only  in  different  form,  they  could  not  have  recrystallized  in 
larger  crystals  had  they  not  been  dissolved  and  recombined. 

It  has  been  shown  that  wherever  the  materials  of  mica  are 
present  in  such  a mixture,  even  though  it  be  not  fully  fluid, 
they  tend  to  be  drawn  together  and  to  crystallize  out  as  mica. 
The  fact  that  chemical  affinity  exists  sufficient  to  segregate 
them,  even  in  a sulDstantiall}^  solid  rock,  is  shown  by  com- 
mon local  metamorphism,  and  is  rather  strikingly  illustrated 
by  the  parallel  case  of  crystallization  or  recrystallization  of  hard 
steel  under  long-continued  vibration.  In  this  case  it  requires 
a jarring  movement  to  bring  the  molecules  together;  in  the 
case  where  they  are  held  in  a partially  or  wholly  melted  state, 
for  a sufficient  length  of  time,  chemical  attraction  alone  seems 
necessary.  The  force  that  will  explain  the  building  up  of  a 
large  mica  crystal  by  the  drawing  together  to  one  point  of  the 
elements  of  such  a solution,  seems  absolutely  identical  with 
that  causing  a crystallization  of  any  chemical  substance  from 
solution,  more  particularly  if  it  be  assumed  that  as  the  solution 
cools  the  mica  becomes  more  and  more  insoluble  therein. 

That,  moreover,  the  mica  did  so  crystallize  is  plainly  indi- 
cated by  its  local  position  in  the  dike,  from  its  having,  as  afore- 
said, a tendency  to  cling  to  one  wall  or  to  the  other,  or  to  cling 
together  in  aggregates  precisely  as  in  the  case  of  other  crystal- 
lization from  solution,  and  the  same  reasoning  pursued  will  ex- 
plain equally  the  separation  of  the  feldspar  and  quartz  in  great 
masses  instead  of  in  small  particles  as  in  other  rocks. 

Much  has  been  said  and  somewhat  has  been  written  on  a pos- 
sible rule  for  finding  the  mica,  and  although  miners  themselves 
pretend  to  have  rules  and  principles  for  finding  it,  it  is  pretty 
safe  to  state  that  no  such  rule  exists,  and  that  ’aside  from  the 
principle  of  crystallization  which  is  alluded  to,  mica  crystallized 
at  random  on  one  wall  or  the  other,  according  to  where  chance 
happened  to  start  the  process.  It  was  stated  above  that  the 
dike  material  in  the  fused  form  was  substantially  homogeneous, 
but  of  course  this  does  not  necessarily  apply  to  very  exten- 
sive areas,  and  from  place  to  place  it  would  naturally  vary  in  its 
contents  of  mica  materials,  thus  g'iving  rise  to  barren  spots  in 
the  dike,  and  in  some  cases  to  dikes  which  were  altogether  free 
from  mica ; but  the  causes  and  order  of  such  events  would  be  as 


October,  1905,]  Mica  and  the  Mica  Industry-  287 

difficult  to  define  or  regulate  by  rule  as  the  movements  of  old 
Mother  Earth  herself. 

The  question  as  to  what  causes  the  rough,  scaly  exterior  of 
mica  crystals  is  one  of  considerable  interest,  and  no  doubt  hav- 
ing an  important  bearing  on  the  question  of  origin,  but  one 
which,  so  far  as  I know,  has  never  been  discussed.  That  it  is 
not  a result  of  secondary  alteration  or  at  any  rate  of  the  action 
of  air  and  water  penetrating  from  the  surface,  is,  I think,  all  but 
certain.  It  has  been  shown  that  ordinary  watering  processes 
have  little  effect  on  ordinary  muscovite,  and  if  weathering  were 
the  cause,  the  effect  would  be  limitd  to  mica  dikes  which  have 
been  partially  disintegrated  by  weathering,  and  not  extend 
into  the  solid  rock  itself.  Moreover,  there  is  no  indication  in 
the  incasing  matrix  of  any  such  alteration.  Perhaps  it  has 
been  due  to  the  fact  that  when  the  mica  was  formed  there  was 
insufficient  water  taken  up  by  the  exterior  portions  to  form 
perfect  mica.  This,  however,  is  merely  a speculation.  There 
is,  so  far  as  I know,  no  published  chemical  analysis  of  the 
scaly  exterior  in  comparison  with  the  interior  of  the  mica- 
blocks,  and  until  we  have  such  analysis,  it  is  impossible  to  reach 
any  definite  conclusion. 

As  previously  noted,  the  action  of  water  penetrating  through 
the  material  of  the  dike  produces  an  alteration  in  the  feld- 
spathic  contents,  dissolving  out  the  alkalies  and  leaving  be- 
hind a hydrated  aluminum  silicate  in  the  form  of  clay,  while  the 
mica  and  quartz  are  left  untouched. 

Occasional  Minerals. 

The  pegmatite  dikes,  both  of  North  Carolina  and  elsewhere, 
are  noted  for  the  number  and  variety  of  unusual  minerals  which 
they  contain  as  accessories.  A list  of  those  occurring  in  the 
North  Carolina  dikes  as  prepared  by  W.  C.  Kerr,  and  cor- 
rected by  F.  A.  Genth,  is  as  follows  :* 

*Notwithstanding  the  revision,  it  seems  very  doubtful  if  this  list  is  com- 
plete. Rutile  (titanium  dioxide)  is  a common  inclusion  in  micas.  Pyrite  is 
almost  always  found  m granitic  rocks,  though  I do  not  remember  having 
seen  it  in  the  Carolina  dikes.  Common  emerald  occurs  in  some  mica  dikes, 
as  that  of  Villeneuve,  Quebec.  Probably  also  ultramarines.  Cassiterite  (tin- 
stone) probably  occurs  here,  as  it  certainly  does  in  the  dikes  in  South  Da- 
kota and  elsewhere.  Kaolinite  is,  of  course,  often  present  as  a derived 
product.  Spodumene  (hiddenite),  corundum,  cyanite,  and  topaz  also  are 
mentioned  as  occurring  with  mica  in  North  Carolina. 


288 


Colies: 


[;.  F.  I., 


Albite 

Allanite 

Amazon  stone(  ?) 
Fluorapatite 
Autunite 
Beryl 


Magnetite 

Menaccanite 

Monazite 

Alnscovite 

Phosphuranylite 

Pyrochlore 

Rogersite 

wSamarskite 

Thulite 

Tourmaline 

Uraninite 

Uranocher 

Uranotil 

Y ttrogummite(  ?) 


Columbite 

Fergusonite 

Fluorite 

Glassy  feldspar(  ?) 

Garnet 

Gummite 

Hatchettolite 

Limonite 


Many  of  these  minerals  are  ores  of  the  rare  earths  and  ele- 
ments, like  cerium,  thorium  and  lanthanum,  etc.,  used  in  incan- 
descent lamp  mantels;  uranium,  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
fluorescent  glass ; niobium,  tantalum  and  other  rare  metals,  in- 
cluding, perhaps,  the  now  famous  radium ; semi-precious  gems, 
like  beryl  and  tourmaline.  These  have  formed  from  time  to 
time  a certain  inconsiderable  addition  to  the  earnings  of  some 
of  the  mines.  The  question  as  to  their  source  and  meaning  is 
certainly  an  interesting  one,  to  which,  however,  so  far  as  I 
know,  no  answer  has  ever  been  attempted. 


THE  PYROXENIC  MICAS. 


Whatever  may  be  the  origin  of  the  micas  in  pyroxenic  rocks, 
it  is  certain  that  it  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  micas  just 
discussed.  The  difference  is  not  only  one  of  chemical  compo- 
sition, but  also  of  geologic  structure  and  character. 

Magnesian  micas  are  found  associated  with  calcite  (carbon- 
ate of  lime)  apatite  (phosphate  of  lime),  pyroxene  (silicate  of 
iron  and  magnesia),  and  hornblende  (ditto).  Although  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  earth’s  surface,  they  are  unique  in  being 
known  to  occur  in  workable  commercial  deposits  apparently 
only  in  the  Laurentian  of  Canada. 

The  mode  of  occurrence  of  the  Canadian  mica  deposits 
points  to  a more  complicated  mode  of  origin  than  that  above 
assigned  to  the  pegmatite  likes.  The  magnesian  micas  do  not 


loiirnal  Franklin  fnsL,  Vol.  CLX,  October,  igos 


{Colics) 


October,  1905.] 


289 


Mica  and  the  Mica  Industry- 

occur  in  normal  pegmatite,  although  dikes  of  this  material  con- 
taining white  mica  are  found  in  occasional  deposits  in  their  im- 
mediate neighborhood.  The  deposits  of  the  magnesian  micas 
and  their  associated  minerals  appear  to  be  more  in  the  nature 
of  veins  deposited  through  the  principal  agency  of  water,  aided 
by  some  degree  of  heat.  The  country-rock  consists  principally 
of  gneisses  and  metamorphosed  and  crystalline  limestones. 
We  find  these  country-rocks  largely  intersected  by  the  veins  of 
the  associated  mica-minerals,  principally  calcite  and  pyroxene, 
and  these,  as  in  the  case  of  the  pegmatite  dikes,  largely  follow 
planes  of  the  strata,  but  also  cut  across  them  both  horizontally 
and  vertically.  The  contacts  between  the  vein  material  and  the 
gneiss  is  often  indefinite,  indicating  a widely  extended  impreg- 
nation of  the  latter  by  the  former.  These  vein:  instrusive 

masses  appear  to  l^e  true  fissure  veins  in  many  respects,  indicat- 
ing that  the  filling  material  was  not  under  pressure,  (i)  The 
veins  are  frequently  banded,  and  successive  fillings  alternating 
as  pyroxene,  calcite,  etc.,  may  be  indicated.  (2)  The  apatite 
and  mica  deposits  are  found  in  irregular  pockets  in  the  pyrox- 
ene, and  the  segregation  of  mica  in  shoots  is  common.  (3) 
Void  spaces  forming  chimneys  and  druses  containing  free  crys- 
tals are  of  common  occurrence.  These  could  hardly  occur 
under  conditions  of  external  pressure  unless  we  suppose  the 
presence  of  large  quantities  of  gas  or  vapor.  The  presence  of 
hot  gases,  moreover,  is  indicated  in  some  places  by  the  burnt 
condition  of  the  chimneys.  The  veins  do  not  die  out  in  length 
or  in  depth,  but  they  extend  as  far  down  as  mining  has  yet  been 
carried,  amounting  to  from  300  to  400  feet  in  Quebec. 

The  most  important  geological  feature  to  note  about  these 
magnesian  mica  veins  is  that  the  mica  occurs  nea^'lv  always  on 
or  near  the  contact  surface  between  the  pyroxene  and  one  of 
the  other  rocks,  especially  calcite  or  gneiss.  Dr.  R.  W.  Ells,  of 
the  Canadian  Geological  Survey,  has  classified  these  deposits 
into  three  principal  heads:*  (i)  Deposits  between  the  pyrox- 
ene dike  and  gneissic  country-rock ; (2)  in  pyroxene  near  the 

*“Mica  Deposits  of  Canada,”  by  R.  W.  Ells,  Bulletin  C.  G.  S.,  1904.  A 
fourth  class  is  given,  defined  as  dikes  of  pyroxene  cut  by  both  calcite  and 
pegmatite,  but  this  variety  does  not  seem  to  be  either  frequent  or  well  de- 
fined, and  is  admitted  by  the  author  himself  to  be  a form  of  class  2,  hence 
it  is  omitted  above. 

Voi,.  CEX.  No.  958 


19 


290 


Colics: 


[J.  F.  L, 


contact  of  cross  dikes  of  diorite  or  pegmatite  (the  mica  of  this 
class  is  ])ockety) ; (3)  in  pyroxene  on  and  near  a fissure  plane. 
Though  ai)parently  inse])arable  from  pyroxene  to  any  great 
distance,  the  matrix  of  the  crystals  is  often  actually  one  of  cal- 
cite  of  apatite,  which  is  interpolated  between  the  pyroxene  and 
the  country  rock.  The  calcite  and  apatite  do  not  always  occur, 
as  the  pyroxene  does,  but  the  best  mica  appears  to  be  usually 
found  in  the  deposits  containing  these  minerals — best  both  in 
quality  and  size. 

From  their  nature,  deposits  of  this  class  are  very  much  more 
concentrated  than  in  the  case  of  the  granitic  micas.  Instead  of 
concentarted  than  in  the  case  of  the  granitic  micas.  Instead  of 
occurring  in  isolated  crystals, it  occurs  in  densely  packed  crys- 
talline masses,  which  form  a vein  in  themselves  without  much 


Fig.  21.  Ideal  section  of  Magnesian  mica  vein. 

access  of  other  material.  These  crystals  are  as  a rule  of  small 
diameter  and  of  very  great  length,  but  plates  of  immense  size 
are  common  in  some  of  the  mines.  These  plates,  like  those  of 
white  mica,  are  frequently  bent,  twisted  and  flawed,  but  the  rea- 
son appears  to  lie  in  the  crow^ding  of  the  crystals  among  them- 
selves rather  than  in  the  bending  and  folding  of  the  strata  in 
wdiich  they  occur.  The  crystals  lie  with  their  axes  in  all  direc- 
tions, haphazard,  and  wdthout  any  observable  arrangement ; 
and  the  sides  of  the  crystals,  that  is,  the  edges  of  the  plates,  are 
for  the  most  part  not  rough  and  ragged  as  in  the  case  of  the 
granitic  micas,  but  are  smooth,  clean  and  polished.  As  might 
be  expected  from  the  solid  interpacking  of  the  material,  voids 
in  the  interspace  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  (See  Fig.  21.) 

It  is  obvious  that  the  contactual  nature  of  the  micas  and  their 
immediate  association  wdth  pyroxene  form  the  most  important 
indices  to  the  origin  of  the  mica.  Whether  segregated  from 


October,  1905.] 


291 


Mica  and  the  Mica  Industry- 

the  elements  of  pyroxene  alone,  or  whether  formed  by  a new 
ehemical  combination  from  these  jointly  with  those  of  some 
other  rock,  it  seems  impossible  to  say  with  certainty, 
because  an  explanation  that  would  do  for  one  deposit  would 
fail  for  another.  The  most  probable  theory  seems  to  be  that 
the  mica  is  a surface  crystallization  upon  the  pyroxene  and 
■from  materials  contained  in  it  while  the  latter  was  still  in  a 
plastic  condition.  That  it  could  have  been  formed  after  the 
rocks  solidified  is  clearly  impossible. 

Age  of  the  Canadian  Deposits. 

The  Laurentian  hills,  in  which  these  deposits  occur,  belong’ 
not  only  to  the  Archaean  age,  but  to  the  oldest  recognized 
period  of  that  age.  It  is  generally  held  among  geologists,  fol- 
lowing the  original  theory  of  J.  D.  Dana,  that  this  portion  of 
the  earth’s  surface  has  been  out  of  water  nearly  all  the  time  since 
the  strata  were  first  raised,  which  raising  is  supposed  to  have 
taken  place  before  the  beginning  of  the  Cambrian  epoch.  There 
are  doubtless  indications  that  this  may  have  been  the  case,  and 
also  it  may  not  be  too  much  to  state  that  proofs  are  lacking.* 


*In  drawing  his  “Archaean  Map  of  North  America,”  Prof.  Dana  simply 
drew  in  the  Archaean  areas  of  the  present  day  as  land,  and  everything  else  as 
water,  stating  that  these  areas  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  continent;  which 
iorms  a part  of  the  argument  for  the  semi-religious  thesis  on  which  his 
views  of  geology  were  based;  and  subsequently  geologists  seem  to  have 
simply  adopted  Dana’s  views.  In  other  words,  the  continent  began  with 
the  present  Archaean  areas  and  continued  in  a general  way  evolving  from 
this  as  a base  to  its  present  extent.  As  all  subsequent  formations  have 
been  derived  from  the  Archaean  this  necessarily  supposes  that  the  material 
which  went  to  form  all  the  other  deposits  of  the  continent,  from  the  Cam- 
brain  to  the  Quaternary,  were  at  one  time  heaped  up  on  the  present 
Archaean  areas.  So  stated,  the  theory  appears  in  its  true  light  as  nothing 
less  than  ridiculous.  Besides,  to  suppose  that  the  present  Archaean  areas 
constituted  the  first  land  is  nothing  less  than  impossible,  for  these  rocks 
are  stratified,  and  consequently,  in  the  nature  of  fragmental  rocks,  were 
derived  from  other  land,  either  by  means  of  rivers  or  ocean  currents,  which 
other  land  must  have  existed  before  these  Archaean  areas  were  formed. 
Inasmuch,  then,  as  other  land  than  the  present  Archaean  constituted  the 
brst  land  of  the  continent,  and  the  nucleus  has  been  changed  at  least  once, 
we  may  as  well  admit  that  it  has  been  changed  a hundred  times.  We  do 
not  know  what  is  under  the  earth  more  than  a few  thousand  feet,  and  if, 
dor  example,  some  point  in  Arizona  were  subjected  to  a continuous  rais- 
ing and  denudation  for  a sufficiently  long  time,  washing  away  one  formation 
-after  another  until  the  Archaean  was  reached,  it  would  offer  a very  similai 
condition  to  that  of  the  Laurentian  Hills,  and  no  doubt  ancient  beaches, 
etc.,  would  be  found  which  would  bear  up  the  theory  that  this  point  formed 
the  beginning  or  nucleus  of  the  continent. 


292 


Colics: 


[].  F.  L, 


But  the  present  area  was,  at  all  events,  at  one  time  covered  with 
many  thousand  feet  of  superposed  strata  of  some  age.  The 
question  is,  (i)  were  the  mica  deposits,  etc.,  made  during  the 
Arcluean  age  and  prior  to  the  general  metamor])hism  of  the 
rocks  in  which  they  occur ; or  (2)  were  they  deposited  in  subse- 
quent ages  when  overlain  by  rocks  of  later  periods,  and  then 
metamorphized — being  perhaps  derived  by  infiltration  from 
aqueous  solutions  bearing  material  from  these  latter  rocks;  or 
(3)  have  they  been  formed  by  aqueous  deposits  since  the  meta- 
morphism of  the  rocks,  and  never  undergone  any  metamorphic 
action  ? These  questions  are  much  more  difficult  to  answer 
than  the  questions  as  to  the  origin  of  the  granitic  micas,  and, 
in  fact,  a definite  answer  cannot  yet  be  given.  Certain  con- 
siderations, however,  point  to  the  last  of  these  three  views  as 
the  most  probable.  The  manner  in  which  the  veins  intersect 
the  strata  of  gneiss  and  each  other,  and  the  presence  of  chim- 
neys and  voids,  appear  to  indicate  with  tolerable  clearness  that 
the  strata  had  been  metamorphized  and  upturned  before  the 
veins  were  formed.  For  the  same  reasons  the  veins  were  prob- 
ably formed  near  the  surface,  and  extended  perhaps  but  a short 
distance  (several  thousand  feet)  below  it.  Expanding  gases 
may  have  opened  the  rock-fissures  and  a heated  magnesian- 
aqueous  magma  followed  to  fill  them.  This  agrees  tolerably 
well  with  the  theory  of  Dr.  R.  W.  Ells,  of  the  Canadian  Geolog- 
ical Survey,  that  the  material  was  derived  from  igneous  sources 
as  submarine  injections.  This  must  have  been  prior  to  the 
laying  down  of  the  Cambrian  and  Silurian,  which  immediately 
overlie  the  Laurentian  series  and  limit  the  exploitable  area ; for 
no  mica  dikes  are  found  in  any  of  these. 

Rclaiion  of ^ Mica  Deposits  to  Archaean  Age. 

Existing  commercial  mica  formations  appear  to  be  exclusively 
confined  to  the  Archaean  rocks — though  there  may  be  excep- 
tions. We  are  naturally  inclined  to  ask.  Was  there  some  peculiar 
geological  condition  acting  in  the  Archaean,  which  produced 
these  rocks,  and  which  does  not  now  exist  ? I believe  there  is  no 
need  for  such  a hypothesis.  A'e  know  that  mica  in  small  crys- 
tals occurs  in  crystalline  rocks  of  all  ages,  and  that  such  crystals 
are  produced  naturally  in  these  rocks  wherever  the  materials 


Black  mica  (biotite)  from  Gracofield,  Ottawa  County,  Que.  The  plate  measures  20x9  in. 


Jour.  Fra7iklin  Inst.,  Vol.  CLX,  October,  ipoj 


294 


Colics: 


[J.F.I. 


for  its  formation  are  at  hand, and  the  heat  is  continuously  main- 
tained. \\-  Q know  that  the  Arcluean  rocks  differ  from  all  later 
rocks  in  being  universally  metamor])hized ; but  this  is  obviously 
ex])lainable  in  the  same  manner  as  the  greater  extent  of  meta- 
morphism among  the  i)rimary  or  secondary  than  among  the 
tertiary  rocks ; namely,  that  they  have  been  more  deeply  buried 
tlian  others ; and  not  hy  invoking  an  extraordinary  terpera- 
ture  on  the  earth's  surface  in  the  earlier  time.*  As  previously 
explained,  the  pegmatite  dikes  imply  the  burial  of  the  rocks  in 
which  they  occur  beneath  several,  perhaps  many  miles  of  over- 
lying  strata,  a condition  which  could  have  been  attained  only 
by  the  Archaean  rocks;  or,  if  attained  by  others  which  exist  to- 
day beneath  the  earth’s  surface,  the  time  has  been  insufficient 
to  raise  them  and  denude  them  sufficiently  to  expose  the  de- 
posits. This  does  not,  indeed,  explain  the  Laurentian  micas^ 
unless  we  assume  them  also  to  have  been  formed  at  a great  dis- 
tance from  the  surface ; but  it  should  be  remembered  that  these 
are  the  only  deposits  of  magnesian  micas  of  importance  that 
have  as  yet  been  commercially  worked,  and  that  little  as  to 
their  day  or  manner  of  origin  can  be  certainly  predicated  at  the 
present  time. 


*The  fact  should  be  emphasized  here,  that  the  Archaean  age  was  an  age 
of  land  and  water,  of  building  up  and  of  laying  down,  in  every  way  similar 
to  the  present  so  far  as  concerns  any  evidence  to  the  contrary,  and  was  em- 
phatically not  an  “age  of  fire,’’  as  it  is  frequently  thought  of  as  being.  I 
have  heard  Archaean  rocks  tajked  of,  by  persons  who  ought  to  know  better,, 
as  “plutonic,”  meaning  rocks  which  originated  through  cooling  from  a 
state  of  incandescence  at  the  time  that  the  globe  first  solidified  from  this 
state.  The  stratified  condition  of  the  rocks  shows  emphatically  that  this 
is  not  the  case.  If  there  was  an  “age  of  fire,”  no  evidence  of  it  can  be  ob- 
tained from  the  rocks  themselves,  and  it  must  have  preceded  the  Archaean 
Age  by  at  least  as  long  a time  as  has  elapsed  since  its  close. 

Another  common  assumption  is  that  the  Archaean  preceded  the  origin 
of  life  on  this  planet,  and  it  has  been  called  the  “Azoic,”  or  lifeless  age — 
because  the  Archaean  rocks  contain  no  recognizable  fossils.  Xo  assumption 
could  be  more  gratuitous.  It  would  be,  of  course,  a bootless  task  to  search 
for  fossils  in  granite,  calcite  and  pyroxene,  but  fortunateh'  there  is  abundant 
evidence  for  the  existence  of  life  of  a varied  and  comparatively  complex 
character  in  the  Archaean. 


( To  be  conthiued) 


Fig.  23.  Normal  amber  mica  (mottled),  from  Lacey  mine,  Sydenham,  Ontario.  This  plate  measures  23x17  inches 
lower  edges  are  lines  of  natural  ruling,  hence  the  plate  is  but  a fraction  of  the  size  of  the  entire  crystal. 


four.  Fra7iklin  Inst.,  Vo/.  CLX,  October,  /goj 


296 


Notes  and  Comments. 


[J.  F.  L, 


HEALING  QUALITIES  OE  EGG  MEMBRANE. 

At  a recent  session  of  the  'I'herapentical  Association  of  Paris,  Doctor 
Amat  lectured  on  the  use  of  membrane  of  eggs  in  the  treatment  of  wounds. 
He  has  observed  for  some  time  the  good  results  of  placing  these  mem- 
branes upon  the  surface  of  wounds,  and  reports  two  new  cases,  that  of  a 
young  girl  suffering  from  a burn  on  her  foot,  and  a man,  forty  years  old, 
with  a large  ulcer  on  his  leg.  Both  wounds  are  in  process  of  healing,  and 
were  covered  with  healthy  granulations.  The  surgeon  overspread  them 
with  six  or  eight  pieces  of  the  membrane  of  eggs,  which  was  covered  with 
tin  foil  and  fastened  with  dry  antiseptic  bandages.  After  four  days  the 
bandages  and  tin  foil  were  removed,  and  it  was  shown  that  the  membrane 
of  the  egg  had  partly  grown  into  the  tissues  and  had  caused  the  growing  of 
a good  skin.  That  the  egg  membrane  had  contributed  much  to  the  healing 
process  was  demonstrated  in  the  further  course  of  treatment.  It  seems, 
however,  that  the  membrane  does  not  always  adhere.  The  process  of 
cicatrization  is  not  only  hastened  but  the  wound  heals  exceptionally  well 
and  leaves  but  few  perceptible  traces.  As  these  membranes  are  procurable 
everywhere  their  use  should  attract  more  attention. — Richard  Guenther  Consul- 
General,  Frankfort,  Germany.  May  13.  1905. 


PREPARATION  OF  RAILWAY  CROSS-TIES. 

The  Revue  Gcnerale  des  Chcniins  de  For  describes  the  preparation  of  cross- 
ties by  the  Compagnie  de  I’Ouest  by  means  of  the  injection  of  creosote. 
Works  for  the  purpose  are  established  at  Surdon  in  the  department  of 
Orme,  about  the  center  of  the  railway  system.  The  yard  occupies  more 
than  eight  hectares.  The  ties,  on  arrival  at  the  yard,  are  classified  accord- 
ing to  their  comparative  resistance  to  the  penetration  of  creosote,  and  are 
piled  up  so  as  to  dry  by  means  of  a free  circulation  of  air.  This  requires 
from  six  months  to  a year,  after  which  they  are  placed  in  hot-air  driers  for 
twenty-four  hours  and  afterward  in  large  hermetically  sealed  injection  cylin- 
ders. heated  by  steam  worms,  under  a pressure  of  two  kilogrammes,  which 
allows  of  maintaining  a uniform  temperature  of  80  deg,  C.  for  the  creosote. 
A vacuum  is  produced  in  the  cylinders,  which  are  put  in- communication  with 
the  creosote  vats.  When  filled  with  the  liquid,  an  inside  pressure  of  seven 
kilogrammes  is  caused  by  means  of  pumps  for  thirty-five  or  fort\--five  min- 
utes. The  annual  production  at  Surdon  is  297.COO  cross-ties,  and  200.0CO 
posts,  stakes  and  other  pieces. — Seimtific  American. 


THE  DISPOSITION  OF  TPIE  BOSTON  "FRANKLIN  FUND." 

The  Board  of  Aldermen  of  Boston.  iMass..  has  formally  accepted  the 
offer  of  Andrew  Carnegie  of  an  endowment  fund  of  $400,000  to  be  used  for 
the  maintenance  of  a trade  school  to  be  established  by  the  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin Fund,  which  is  the  accumulation  of  a bequest  by  that  eminent  American 
made  a century  ago.  The  condition  of  Mr.  Carnegie's  gift  is  that  the  in* 
stitution  be  patterned  after  the  Cooper  Union,  New  York. 


October,  1905.]  Sanitary  Protection  of  Water  Supplies- 


297 


Stated  Meeting,  held  Thursday,  April  i8th,  ipoy. 


The  Sanitary  Protection  of  Water  Supplies* 

By  Kenneth  Allen. 

Chief  Engineer  Water  Department  Atlantic  City,  N.  J. 


[Unsanitary  conditions  may  be  detected  by  analysis  of  water,  by  inspection  of  watershed  or  by 
mortality  statistics.  Knowledge  of  the  life  history  of  the  typhoid  germ  and  registration  of  vital 
statistics  are  important.  Presumptive  tests  for  B.  Coli  valuable. 

Corrective  treatment  may  be  applied  by  the  individual  but  should  be  applied  to  the  entire  sup- 
ply. It  may  consist  in:  1.  Prevention  of  pollution;  2.  Adoption  of  a pure  supply;  IL  Purification 
of  an  inferior  supply.  Control  by  Boards  of  Health,  with  Federal  control  as  a last  resort,  is  sug- 
gested. In  any  case  ample  power  and  funds  should  be  provided.  In  selecting  method  of  securing 
pure  water  with  limited  resources  do  not  strive  for  ideal  results  in  some  detail  at  expense  of  greater 
general  benefit.— The  Emtok.] 

It  is  with  a feeling  of  diffidence  that  I approach  the  subject 
of  sanitation  with  relation  to  \vater  supplies  in  a city  where  it 
has  been  uppermost  in  the  minds  of  the  people  for  a genera- 
tion, where  most  eminent  advice  has  been  given  with  regard  to 
the  betterment  of  its  own  supply  and  where,  finally,  monumen- 
tal works  to  alleviate  the  intolerable  conditions  of  the  past  are 
approaching  completion.  But  it  is  one  of  those  matters  con- 
cerning which  eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  safety,  and, 
moreover,  it  is  one  in  which  a marked  development  is  taking 
place  ; and  these  are  perhaps  sufficient  reasons  for  speaking  on 
this  subject  to  you  to-night. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  three  great  evils  to  mankind  in  the 
past  have  been  war,  pestilence  and  famine.  In  spite  of  the  in- 
creased efficiency  of  modern  arms  and  the  recent  activity  in  the 
East  this  great  evil  is  becoming  less  and  less.  This,  as  pointed 
out  by  Bloch,  is  partly  on  account  of  the  fearful  destructive- 
ness of  scientific  warfare  from  an  economic  point  of  view,  but 
perhaps  more  on  account  of  the  rapid  development  of  the 
humanitarian  instincts  since  the  first  of  the  last  century. 

Famine,  too,  is  a thing  of  the  past  in  all  civilized  countries  on 
accunt  of  the  ample  facilities  for  transport  of  supplies  and  the 
transfer  of  news,  due  to  the  use  of  steam  and  electricity.  And, 
compared  with  the  Middle  Ages,  modern  society  may  be  said  to 
be  free  from  the  horrors  of  pestilence.  With  ordinarily  decent 
modes  of  living  those  terrible  scourges  the  plague  and  typhus 
have  become  practically  extinct ; with  the  general  practice  of 


Allen: 


[J.  F.  L, 


298 


vaccination  smallpox  is  not  to  be  feared  as  in  the  past;  more 
recently  the  ])ro])hylactic  pro])erties  of  specific  serums  are  re- 
ducing' the  mortality  due  to  diphtheria  and  other  diseases  and 
by  the  extermination  of  the  stegomyia  fasciata  and  anopheles 
mosquitoes  the  spread  of  yellow  fever  and  malaria  in  Cuba  and 
Panama  is  being  controlled. 

But  in  spite  of  all  this  progress  in  the  prevention  of  disease 
the  mortality  from  typhoid  fever  remains  about  45*  for  each 
10,000  inhabitants  in  the  United  States,  and  52.8  in  the  case  of 
Philadel]:)hia ; while  it  has  been  recognized  for  some  years  that 
this  disease  is  due  to  a specific  bacterium,  that  it  is  usually  con- 
veyed by  drinking  water,  and  that  it  is  what  is  termed  a “pre- 
ventable” disease. 

Growth  in  our  knowledge  of  the  causes  of  disease  and  its 
prevention  have  kept  pace  with  growth  in  general  sanitation. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  conditions  and  customs 
were  tolerated  in  English  towns  that  to  us  seem  inconceivable, 
while  the  simplest  means  of  avoiding  infection  were  neglected 
in  those  cases  where  the  direct  relation  of  filth  to  disease  was 
not  evident. 

The  case  of  the  Broad  vStreet  pump,  in  London,  whose  clear, 
sparkling  water  caused  in  1854  the  deaths  of  616  persons, 
is  well  known,  yet  even  to-day  it  is  hard  to  convince  many  that 
the  danger  in  polluted  water  is  generally  invisible.  Neverthe- 
less, especially  during  the  past  thirty  years,  the  early  years  of 
bacteriology,  appreciation  of  the  relation  between  water  sup- 
ply, filth,  infection  and  disease  has  made  rapid  advances,  and 
there  is  a marked  demand  for  purer  and  safer  supplies.  What 
I wish  to  point  out  is  the  fact  that  the  present  attitude  regard- 
ing this  subject,  as  that  regarding  electricity,  corporations, 
transportation,  organized  charity  and  prison  reform,  is  essen- 
tially modern — so  modern  that  as  yet  there  is  need  of  much  edu- 
cational work  and  much  effort  to  utilize  the  knowledge  we  al- 
ready possess. 

The  problem  confronting  the  sanitarian  is  two-fold:  the 
deteetion  of  nnsanifary  eonditions  and  their  remedy.  In  the  matter 
of  public  water  supplies  we  wish  to  avoid  in  particular  ingredi- 


*Estimated  at  46.27  by  Dr.  Osier  in  1890.  who  also  estimated  a rate  of  17.9 
for  England  and  Wales,  65.8  for  Italy,  47  for  Austria  and  20.4  for  Prussia. 


October,  1905,]  Sanitary  Protection  of  Water  Supplies-  299 

ents  prejudicial  to  health.  Mineral  poisons  are  seldom  found 
but  living  organisms  or  theih  products  may  be  the  vehicles  by 
which  most  dangerous  diseases  are  transmitted,  and  it  is  the 
detection  of  these  that  most  concerns  the  sanitarian.  And 
right  here  it  will  generally  be  necessary  for  him  to  call  to  his 
aid  the  expert  services  of  the  chemist,  the  bacteriologist  and 
the  biologist. 

But  a few  years  ago,  when  it  was  found  that  the  potability  of 
a water  could  not  be  affirmed  by  its  appearance,  it  was  sup- 
posed that  a chemical  analysis  would  completely  reveal  its 
character. 

This  is  true  in  a general  way  only.  Gross  pollution  is  readily 
detected  by  analysis  and  water  of  high  chemical  purity  is  sel- 
dom to  be  feared  ; but  we  now  know  that,  in  the  dissemination 
of  disease,  bacteria,  which  are  not  discoverable  by  the  methods 
of  the  chemist,  play  an  essential  roll.  And  while  a public  water 
supply  should  be  free  from  sediment,  color,  objectionable  tastes 
or  odors,  excessive  amounts  of  iron,  lime,  magnesia  or  constit- 
uents that  are  capable  of  dissolving  lead  or  other  service  pipes 
or  fittings,  the  infection  of  a water  supply  by  pathogenic  bac- 
teria, as  the  most  important  phase  of  the  question,  is  the  one  I 
shall  dwell  upon  in  particular  detail. 

THE  DETECTION  OF  UNSANITARY  CONDITIONS. 

Unsanitary  conditions  regarding  a water  supply  may  be  de- 
tected by  an  examination  of  the  water  itself,  by  making  a sani- 
tary inspection  of  the  watershed,  or  it  may  be  revealed  by  the 
health  and  mortality  statistics  of  the  community  served — espe- 
cially those  due  to  intestinal  disorders  such  as  diarrhoea,  ty- 
phoid fever  and  cholera.  The  first  of  these  complaints  is  not 
often  fatal  and  is  generally  readily  controlled  by  ordinary  care 
in  diet ; cholera,  although  a most  fatal  disease,  does  not  often 
obtain  a foothold  in  well-regulated  communities ; but  typhoid 
is  always  with  us.  It  is,  then,  to  the  suppression  of  this  dis- 
ease more  than  any  other  that  particular  effort  should  be  di- 
rected, and  we  may  do  this  confident  of  success  now  that  the 
cause  of  the  disease  and  many  of  its  characteristics  are  known. 

Typhoid  fever  is  the  result  of  the  lodgment  and  development 
of  the  typhoid  bacillus  on  the  walls  of  the  intestinal  canal  to 
which  it  is  conveyed  by  our  food  or  drink;  and  while  cases  and 


300 


Allen: 


[J.F.I., 


sometimes  epidemics  have  l)een  caused  by  infected  shell  fish, 
milk  and  other  food  stuffs  that  have  become  contaminated — 
perhaps  by  flies  or  by  careless  handling — the  use  of  impure 
water  is  the  most  common  source  of  the  disease.  It  behooves 
us,  then,  to  learn  how  our  water  supplies  may  become  infected, 
how  to  detect  such  infection,  what  remedies  to  ap]:)ly  and  what 
precautions  to  take  to  guard  against  further  infection. 

Prof.  Sedgwick  has  said*  that  the  germs  “of  typhoid  fever 
are  so  few  that  all  search  for  them  by  competent  observers  is 
usually  in  vain  * * * . In  comparison  with  the  whole 

number  of  bacteria,  those  of  typhoid  fever  are  probably  as  rare 
as  planets  are  among  the  stars,  while,  unlike  the  planets,  they 
have  no  marked  features  of  size  or  motion  which  enables  them 
to  be  readily  distinguished.’’ 

Although  it  may  be  said  that  the  typhoid  bacillus  “has  been 
found  but  by  two  or  three  competent  o1)servers  so  far  in  ty- 
phoid-producing natural  waters”!  we  have  been  made  some- 
what familiar  with  its  characteristics  by  recent  studies  by  bac- 
teriologists of  cultures  derived  from  infected  sewage  or  dejecta. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  sanitarian  it  is  most  important 
to  ascertain  the  longevity  of  the  typhoid  bacillus  under  differ- 
ent conditions,  especially  in  water,  and  the  following  are  results 
that  have  been  found  by  several  observers : 

Frankland  experimented  on  the  life  of  the  typhoid  bacterium 
in  the  polluted  surface  water  of  the  Thames,  the  soft,  peaty 
water  of  Lock  Katrine  and  hard  water  from  a deep  well  with 
the  following  results : 

Days  when  last  bacterium  was  observed. 


Thames. 

L.  Katrine. 

Deep  well. 

When  placed  in  raw 

water.  . . 

9 

19 

33 

Water  sterilized  by 

steam . . . 

32 

51 

20 

Filtered  water 

II 

39 

II 

Mr.  George  W.  Fuller  has  found  that  the  “typhoid  bacterium 
continues  to  live  in  the  waters  of  the  Merrimac  river  at  Law- 
rence, in  greatly  diminished  numbers,  for  a period  of  at  least 
twenty-four  days.:j: 

Another  authority  states  that  “in  sterilized  water  typhoid 
^Sources  of  typhoid  fever  in  Pittsburgh — 1898. 

tRep.  John  A.  Amyot,  ALD..  San.  Jour.  Provincial  Bd.  Hlth.,  1904. 
tinternational  Public  Health  Congress — 1893. 


301 


October,  1905.]  Sajiitary  Protection  of  Water  Supplies- 

bacilli  do  not  multiply,  but  perish  iu  from  one  to  three  mouths, 
lu  water  where  there  is  much  organic  matter  they  may  live 
longer,  but  the  ordinary  water  bacteria  seem  to  destroy  them 
speedily.” 

Perhaps  the  most  reliable  data  regarding  the  longevity  of  the 
typhoid  bacillus  have  been  obtained  by  Messrs.  E.  O.  Jordon,  H. 
L.  Russell  and  F.  R.  Zeit’  in  a series  of  elaborate  experiments 
made  at  the  request  of  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago  about  a 
year  ago.  These  are  of  particular  interest  from  the  fact  that 
natural  conditions  or  environment,  including  change  of  water, 
were  employed  by  enclosing  the  organisms  in  permeable  sacs 
of  parchment  or  celloidin  and  immersing  these  at  various  points 
in  Lake  Michigan,  the  Chicago  River,  the  Drainage  Canal  and 
the  Illinois  River.  The  soluble  products  of  organisms  existing 
in  these  waters  were  therefore  brought  into  contact  with  the 
typhoid  bacilli  by  osmosis  while  the  bacilli  themselves  could  not 
escape.* 

These  gentlemen  found  that  under  these  conditions  ‘‘the  vast 
majority  of  typhoid  bacilli  * * * perished  within  three  or 

four  days,”  although  “it  is  theoretically  possible  that  specially 
resistant  cells  may  occur  which  are*  able  to  withstand  for  a 
longer  period  the  hostile  indnences  evidently  present  in  the 
water.”  And  they  further  conclude: 

I St.  “That  typhoid  bacilli  die  out  more  readily  in  imsterilized 
water  than  in  the  same  water  sterilized  by  heat ;”  and 

2d.  “That  when  typhoid  bacilli  are  introduced  into  nnsteriliz- 
ed  water  containing  little  organic  matter,  their  longevity  is  more 
prolonged  than  in  water  charged  with  considerable  organic 
matter.” 

As  to  their  survival  during  low  temperatures.  Professor  Wm. 
T.  Sedgwick  says  if 

“The  latest  and  most  trustworthy  investigatigns  on  this  sub- 
ject do  not  support  the  idea  that  any  considerable  number  of 
cases,  even  in  a large  city  using  a comparatively  impure  ice  sup- 
ply, can  be  traced  to  this  source,  and  it  is  a remarkable  and 
important  fact  that  no  epidemic  or  other  excess  of  typhoid  has 
ever  yet  been  undisputably  traced  to  infected  ice.’” 

*Some  doubt  as  to  this  last  point  has  been  recently  raised  by  the  results 
of  experiments  by  W.  R.  Copeland  at  Columbus,  Ohio.  K.  A. 

t“Source  of  Typhoid  Fever  in  Pittsburgh.” — 1898. 


302 


Allen: 


[J.  F.  I., 


It  ap])ears,  however,  tliat  this  l^acterium  persists  longer  in 
cold  weather  than  in  summer. 

As  a rule  deep-seated  soils  are  sretile;  but  sewage  bacteria 
have  been  found  at  considerable  depths  when  forced  through  a 
porous  soil  by  continuous  dosing  on  the  surface. 

Mr.  Fuller  states  that  the  typhoid  bacillus  has  been  found 
.alive  in  the  soil  after  five  and  a-half  months,  and  that  it  has 
been  found  at  a depth  of  nine  and  a-half  feet. 

Dr.  Martin,  of  England,  finds  that  “‘in  certain  virgin  soils 
* * * the  typhoid  bacillus  does  not  grow  nor  live  under 

.any  condition  of  the  soil,  sterilized  or  unsterilized,'’  but  that 
“in'  cultivated  soils,  /.  c.  those  containing  organic  matter,  that 
Fave  been  sterilized,  the  bacillus  lives  for  a prolonged  period 
and  spreads  through  the  soil.  If,  however,  the  bacillus  be 
-added  to  a cultivated  soil,  sterilization  of  which  has  been  omit- 
ted, the  micro-organism  cannot  be  obtained  from  such  soil  after 
twelve  days  or  so.” 

Mr.  George  C.  Whipple  found,  in  examination  of  the  sands 
■of  Long  Island  containing  from  136,130  to  200,000  bacteria  per 
c.c.  at  the  surface,  that  at  a depth  of  two  feet  there  were  but 
from  2,850  to  35,870  ; at  a depth  of  4 feet  from  280  to  2,240, and 
.at  a depth  of  7 feet  from  o to  170.  “These  results,”  he  says, 
“indicate  that  below  a depth  of  five  feet  the  sand  never  contains 
more  than  a very  small  number  of  bacteria.” 

The  longevity  of  this  organism  has  a most  important  bearing 
-on  the  transmission  of  typhoid  by  flowing  water  and  has 
‘brought  out  elaborate  arguments  in  testimony  before  the  L".  S. 
-Supreme  Court  concerning  the  effect  of  Chicago's  Drainage 
•Canal  on  the  water  supply  of  St.  Louis.  Between  the  tendency 
•of  this  organism  to  die  out  and  the  eff*ect  of  dilution  by  the 
comparatively  pure  water  of  Lake  Michigan  it  is  argued  that 
the  waters  of  the  lower  Illinois  and  of  the  ^lississippi  at  St. 
Louis  are  actually  rendered  safer  and  more  pure  than  before.* 

In  fact,  from  a large  number  of  analyses  of  the  waters  of  the 
Illinois  and  Mississippi  Rivers  extending  over  the  years 
1897-1902,  Prof.  A.  \V.  Palmer  finds  that  “‘although  the  quan- 

*AIr.  John  W.  Alvord,  assuming  an  average  of  100,000  persons  for  every 
"twenty  deaths  on  the  various  drainage  areas  determines  “effective  popula- 
“tions  contributing  pollution”  of  3.750,000  at  Chicago,  about  2,000.000  at 
IPeoria  after  flowing  five  days  and  but  100,000  after  flowing  fourteen  days. 


October,  1905.]  Saiiiiary  Protection  of  Water  SnppHcs^  3^3 

titles  or  organic  matters  in  the  sewage  now  discharged  into  the 
Desplaines  and  Illinois  Rivers  are  30  per  cent,  greater  than  be- 
fore, the  proportions  of  organic  matters  contained  in  the 
w^aters  discharged  by  the  Illinois  River  into  the  Mississippi  are 
very  considerably  smaller  than  they  were  prior  to  1900;  and 
that  the  decrease  of  the  proportions  is  not  a mere  dilution,  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  the  actual  quantities  of  organic  matters 
discharged  are  less  than  they  were  formerly.”* 

According  to  Messrs.  Zeit  and  Flitters  :t 

The  Seine  at  70  kilometers  below  Paris,  the  Oder  32  kilome- 
ters 1)elow  Breslau,  the  Isar  33  kilometers  below  Munich  and 
the  Limmat  14  kilometers  below  Zurich,  are  each  as  pure  as 
before  entering  these  respective  towns. 

These  gentlemen,  after  much  experimental  study,  arrived  at 
the  following  conclusions,  the  first  of  which,  however,  should 
be  accepted  with  caution  as  not  entirely  in  accord  with  the  con- 
sensus of  opinion  among  sanitarians,  viz. : 

“A  seriously  polluted  water  becomes  pure  again  after  flowing 
a certain  distance.  Pathogenic  bacteria  and  sewage  bacteria 
decrease  as  organic  matter  decreases.  At  the  same  time  water 
bacteria  increase.  The  presence  of  saprophytes  hastens  the  re- 
moval  of  organic  matter  and  the  death  of  pathogenic  bacteria. 

“The  quantitative  bacteriological  examination  must  give 
w'ay  to  the  qualitative,  because  a few  infectious  bacteria  per  c.c. 
•constitute  a more  severe  water  pollution  than  a very  great 
r.umber  of  water  l^acteria.” 

According  to  Mr.  Whipple,  “The  soil  is  the  great  repository 
■of  bacterial  life,  and  every  rainfall  that  washes  the  surface  of  the 
•ground  carries  countless  millions  of  bacteria  into  the  streams. 
Hence,  after  every  rain  the  number  of  bacteria  in  the  water 
■supply  increases.  The  heavier  the  rainfall  the  larger  in  general 
will  be  the  number  of  bacteria  found.  * * * Speaking  gen- 
erally, * * the  numbers  of  bacteria  in  the  Croton  water 

measures  the  amount  of  surface  wash  into  the  stream,  and 
Fence  the  chance  of  infection.”! 

Contrary  to  public  opinion  it  will  be  seen  that,  so  far  as  trans- 
mission of  disease  goes,  the  infection  of  a small  rapidly-flowing^ 

*Chemical  Survey  of  the  Waters  of  Illinois — 1903. 

tSanitary  Investig.  of  111.  River.  111.  St.  Bd.  of  Hlth.,  1901. 

$Rep.  Com.  on  Add.  Water  Supply  for  the  City  of  New  York,  p.  378. 


Allen: 


[J.  F.  I., 


304 


stream  is  more  to  1)e  feared  than  that  of  a sluggish  stream  or 
reservoir.  The  great  lakes  receive  untold  polluting  material, 
and  yet  furnish  a wholesome  water  supply,  except  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  towns.  According  to  Whip])le,  “A  water  ten  days  after 
infection  is  perhaps  one-sixth  as  likely  to  cause  disease  as  that 
water  one  day  after  infection,  while  in  one  month  it  is  perhaps 
one-hftieth  as  great.  The  value  of  large  storage  reservoirs  is 
thus  evident.”* 

Moreover,  as  infecting  material  received  by  a small  stream 
will  be  conveyed  in  a concentrated  form,  these  require  more 
vigilant  inspection  than  large  ones — other  things  being  equal. 
The  characteristics  of  large  rivers  are  more  permanent. 
In  recent  investigations  into  the  filtration  problem  at  Xew  Or- 
leans it  was  found  that  the  Mississippi  River  at  this  point,  al- 
though receiving  the  drainag'e  from  the  vast  population  on  its 
drainage  area,  was  comparatively  free  from  bacteria  and  or- 
ganic pollution. 

It  is  partly  on  account  of  the  use  of  small  streams,  although 
more  particularly  from  the  careless  location  of  wells  and  the 
lack  of  supervision  over  water  supplies  and  drainage,  that  ty- 
phoid is  often  spoken  of  as  a rural  disease.  And  from  its  pre- 
valence in  the  country  on  areas  utilized,  perhaps,  for  the  collec- 
tion of  public  water  supplies,  the  need  of  efficient  sanitary  in- 
spection of  such  areas  is  evident. 

Conceding  that  typhoid  may  be  derived  from  polluted  oys- 
ters, dust  containing  the  typhoid  germ  or  polluted  milk;  that 
cases  may  be  imported  from  other  cities  or  induced  by  careless 
nursing,  it  remains  a fact  that  the  typhoid  mortality  of  a town  is 
perhaps  the  best  single  test  of  the  quality  of  its  water  supply. 

Why  is  it  that  Philadelphia,  Pittsburgh,  Allegheny,  Troy, 
Albany  and  Washington  have  had  typhoid  rates  in  the  past  of 
from  65  to  no  per  100,000?  And  why  is  it'  that  Bos- 
ton, New  York,  St.  Louis,  Buffalo,  Jersey  City  and  Providence 
have  had  but  19  to  29  deaths  per  100,000?  while  in  Berlin, 
Hamburg,  Munich,  Dresden,  Hanover,  Leipsic  and  Cologne 
the  mortality  is  but  from  4.6  to  9 per  100,000?  L^nquestionably 
because  the  first-named  cities  have  had  polluted  water  supplies, 
the  second  set  supplies  from  good  natural  streams  or  lakes, 

*Report  on  Quality  of  the  Present  Water  Supplies  of  Xew  York  City — 
1904. 


305 


October,  1905.]  Sajiifary  Protection  of  Water  Supplies- 

while  the  third  set  have  supplies  raised  above  suspicion.  This 
opinion  is  confirmkl  when  we  come  to  study  the  epidemics  of 
typhoid  such  as  those  at  Plymouth  and  Butler  in  this  State, 
Lowell  and  Lawrence  in  Massachusetts,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  and 
many  others,  where  there  is  abundant  evidence  of  the  contam- 
ination of  the  water  supply  by  typhoid  dejecta.  In  the  first  of 
these  1104  cases  and  114  deaths  were  directly  traced  to  one 
typhoid  patient,  although  the  water  had  first  passed  through 
three  storage  reservoirs  having  a combined  capacity  of  5,- 
000,000  gallons.  Further  confirmation  is  found  in  the  relative 
typhoid  mortality  before  and  after  the  purification  of  the  supply 
as  has  just  been  illustrated  in  your  own  city,  Lawrence,  Albany 
and  Chicago.  In  Berlin,  before  1883,  the  mortality  from  this 
cause  was  i in  9,000.  After  the  introduction  of  filtration  works 
the  rate  was  reduced  so  that  since  1893  it  has  been  but  i in  10,- 
000,  or  half  as  many  as  in  New  York.  In  1876  it  was  i in 
10,850  in  Philadelphia,  while  now  it  is  but  i in  1890. 

Yet  another  evidence  that  water  is  the  chief  cause  of  typhoid 
is  mentioned  l)y  Dr.  A.  Seibert,*  who  attributes  its  prevalence 
in  New  York  during  warm  weather — as  has  also  been  ob- 
served in  the  Prussian  army — to  the  fact  that  more  water  is 
drunk  at  this  time  of  the  year,  and  that  bacterial  life  is  then 
more  active  and  abundant. y 

Turning  now  to  the  lives  sacrificed  annually  by  typhoid,  these 
probably  aggregate  in  the  United  States  about  50,000;  in  New 
York  425;  in  Chicago  (previous  to  1900)  900;  in  Philadelphia 
(1890-1900)  600,  while  the  loss  in  dollars  and  cents  to  the  State 
of  Connecticut  alone  in  1902  has  been  estimated  at  twenty-five 
million  dollars.  Mr.  John  W.  Hill,  of  your  filtration  bureau, 
has  estimated  the  annual  loss  from  typhoid  in  the  United  States 
at  $278,000,000.1 

It  would  seem  only  necessary  to  bring. the  intelligent  busi- 
ness men  of  the  community  to  a realization  of  such  losses  and 
the  possibility  of  their  control  to  ensure  every  safeguard  over 
our  water  supplies. 

It  is  most  important  that  accurate  statistics  be  kept  of  all 


*New  York  Medical  Journal. 

tThe  N.  Y.  Sun  states  that  of  6,000  cases  per  annum  in  New  York,  half, 
occur  in  the  fall  and  one-fourth  in  the  summer. 

IThe  Relation  of  Water  to  Typhoid  Fe.ver,  1898. 

Vol.  CIvX.  No.  958 


20 


typhoid  cases  as  well  as  deaths,  for  it  is  by  noting  an  abnormal 
increase  in  these  that  we  can  best  receive  warning  of  an  epi- 
demic, and  by  properly  interpreting  a comparison  with  corres- 
ponding figures  for  other  towns,  that  we  may  be  in  possession 
■of  one  of  the  most  valuable  factors  required  in  forming  an  esti- 
mate of  the  potability  of  a given  supply.  Dr.  A.  C.  Abbott, 
Chief  of  the  Philadelphia  Bureau  of  Health,  has  said  that  “of 
the  data  relating  to  suspicious  water  supplies,  those  which  are 
most  trustworthy  and  constant  in  their  indications  are  the  regu- 
larly recorded  vital  statistics  of  the  community  using  such 
w'ater." 

For  this  reason  it  is  most  unfortunate  that  the  registration  of 
vital  statistics  is  not  compulsory  in  this  State  although  there 
.are  indications  that  this  may  be  remedied  before  long. 

The  pollution  of  a water  supply  may  be  indicated  by  the  ex- 
amination of  a sample  of  the  water.  Turbidity,  color,  odor  and 
taste  are  sometimes  indicative  of  its  quality,  but  a chemical  an- 
alysis is  required  to  give  quantitative  results  and  to  enable  the 
expert  to  make  a good  guess  as  to  the  cause  of  pollution,  if 
such  be  found,  and  whether  it  is  recent  or  of  long  standing.* 
Zeit  and  Futterer  state  that  “To  establish  the  normal  impur- 
ity of  a river,  the  water  level  should  be  falling  and  no  rains  to 
increase  the  normal  pollution  * * * Bacterial  purifica- 

tion of  a river  can  be  judged  by  the  gradual  disappearance  of 
pathogenic  and  sewage  bacteria  with  falling  water  level. f 

As  a water  used  for  drinking  purposes  should  be  judged 
when  at  its  worst,  however,  samples  should  be  taken  both  dur- 
ing a drought,  or  at  least  during  a low  stage  of  the  stream, 
when  impurities  will  be  in  a state  of  greater  concentration,  and 
immediately  after  a hard  rain,  when  impurities  will  have  been 
washed  into  the  stream  from  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Pollution  is  indicated  by  the  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter 


*Mr.  X.  H,  Goodnoiigh  states  among  numerous  similar  examples.  (Re- 
port of  Commission  on  Charles  River  Dam,  1903)  “The  waters  of  the  Con- 
necticut River  * * * not  show  any  evidence  to  the  senses  of  the 

pollution  they  receive  after  the  sewage  has  entered  the  river  at  Holyoke, 
Chicopee,  Springfield  or  West  Springfield,  excepting  floating  matters, 
chiefly  from  manufacturing  wastes.” 

fReport  to  111.  St.  Bd.  of  Hlth.  on  Examinations  of  the  Waters  of  the 
111.  River,  1901. 


October,  1905.]  Sanitary  Protection  of  Water  Supplies-  307 

in  a sample  of  water,  by  the  decomposable  organic  matter  as  in- 
dicated by  the  oxygen  into  which  it  will  enter  into  combina- 
tion and  by  the  colorine  above  that  found  normally  in  the  nat- 
ural unpolluted  streams  of  the  neighborhood.* 

None  of  these  constituents  is  necessarily  harmful,  being 
rather  indicative  of  pollution — past  or  present,  vegetable  or  ani- 
mal. As  to  the  interpretation  of  the  analysis,  this  should  be 
done  with  great  care  and  only  considered  final  after  confirma- 
tion by  ah  expert.  Even  then  the  chemist  may  fail  to  discover 
the  direct  cause  of  disease — pathogenic  bacteria,  and  it  is  nec- 
essary to  turn  to  the  bacteriologist  for  aid. 

Bacteria  are  present  in  surface  waters  in  countless  numbers. 
The  limit  for  a good  drinking  water  has  been  placed  at  from 
100  to  300  per  c.c.  Those  ordinarily  found  are  called  saphro- 
phytes,  and  are  generally  considered  harmless,  while  others — 
pathogenic  bacteria — are  known  to  cause  specific  disease.** 
Sewage  may  contain  as  many  as  thirty-five  million  per  c.c. ; 
rivers  vary  greatly,  but  may  contain  from  several  hundred* to 
as  many  thousand;  ordinary  wells  four  or  five  hundred,  while 
the  waters  of  Lake  Superior  contain  but  from  twenty  to  thirty 
per  c.c.  and  artesian  wells  none.f 

Now,  although  the  dejecta  of  a typhoid  patient  may  contain 


*Rough  limits  of  these  several  constituents  for  a drinking  water  may  be 
taken  as  the  following  in  parts  per  million: 

Chlorine  10  above  normal 

Albuminoid  Ammonia 0.02 

Nitrates  oo5 

Nitrites  None 

Oxygen  consumed 4 

**Bacteria  are  also  classed  as  aerobic  (normally  requiring  oxygen)  and 
anaerobic  and  as  liquefying  (those  which  liquefy  solids)  and  non-liquefying 
bacteria.  Of  440  varieties  known,  196  are  liquefying  bacteria.  In  sewage 
there  have  been  found,  per  cubic  inch  (cc?): 

5 million  anaerobic  liquefying  bacteria 
12  “ “ non-liquefying  bacteria 

8 “ aerobic  liquefying  bacteria 

77  “ “ non-liquefying  bacteria 

•or  about  100  million  in  all. 

fAs  to  their  size  it  has  been  estimated  that  it  would  take  about  53,000  to 
weigh  a grain.  The  tvohoid  bacillus,  which  was  discovered  by  both  Eberth 
and  Koch  but  25  years  ago,  is  about  50600  inch  in  thickness  and  several  times 
as  long. 


Allen: 


[J.  F.  1., 


308 


as  many  as  2,000,000,000  typhoid  bacilli  per  gram*  it  has  been 
pointed  out  that  by  dispersion  or  death  these  are  not  readily 
found  in  even  a grossly  polluted  water.  Fortunately  a more 
persistent  bacterium  universally  found  in  the  intestines  of  man 
and  animals,  known  as  the  Bacillus  Coli,  affords  an  excellent 
means  by  which  we  may  infer  pollution  from  animal  sources 
and  hence  danger  as  a conveyor  of  disease  germs.  Presump- 
tive tests  are  therefore  usually  made  for  this  bacterium.  So 
universally  is  this’  found  in  surface  waters,  however,  that  per- 
fectly good  supplies  may  give  positive  tests  with  10  c.c.f 

Mr.  Whipple  suggests  the  following  provisional  scale  by 
which  the  character  of  surface  water  may  be  judged  according 
to  the  B.  Coli  it  contains : 


If  found  in  100  c.c.  the  water  may  be  assumed  as  safe 
‘‘  “ 10  c.c.  “ “ “ “ reasonably  safe 

“ “ I c.c.  “ “ “ “ questionable 

“ “ o.i  c.c.  “ “ “ “ probably  unsafe. 

“ “ o.oic.c.  “ “ “ “ unsafe 

With  regard  to  well  waters  the  presence  of  this  organism  “is 
an  almost  infallible  indication  of  the  presence  of  contamination 
with  surface  water.  J 

The  identification  of  other  forms  of  bacteria  in  the  examina- 
tion ofl  water  supplies  is  as  a rule  deemed  superfluous  and  not 
attempted  in  this  country,  although  it  is  recognized  of  much 
importance*  in  studies  of  sewage  purification. 

Of  several  characteristic  sewage  bacteria  it  may  be  said,  how- 
ever, that  strepococci  survive  in  the  soil  but  a short  time;  B. 
Coli  disappear  as  a rule  rapidly,  but  certain  ‘‘strains”  may  sur- 
vive for  weeks  or  months,  while  B.  enteriditis  sporogenes  ma}^ 
persist  for  long  periods.  The  first  two,  therefore,  indicate  re- 
cent pollution — the  latter,  if  alone,  pollution  in  the  past.** 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  chemical  and  bacterial  exam  • 
illations  are  mutually  supporting,  that  the  former  are  of  great- 
est value  in  detecting  conditions  liable  to  cause  offense  to  the 
senses,  while  bacterial  examinations  are  of  greatest  value  in  de- 
termining the  safety  of  a drinking  water. 


*Hazen,  Filtration  of  Public  Water  Supplies,  1898. 

tGeorge  C.  Whipple.  “Quality  of  the  Present  supply  of  Xew  York 
City.” — 1904. 

:i;Technology  Quarterly,  March,  1903. 

**See  report  of  Royal  Com.  on  Sewage  Disposal,  1905. 


October,  1905.]  Sanitary  Protection  of  Water  Supplies-  3^9 


Examination  of  water  supplies  is  regularly  made  now  by 
most  cities  of  importance.  Chemical  analyses  are  made  by 
Baltimore,  Brooklyn,  Buffalo,  Chicago,  Newark  and  New 
York;  bacterial  examinations  by  Albany,  Buffalo,  Denver, 
Hartford,  Lawrence,  Newark  and  New  York;  and  biological 
examinations  by  Albany,  Brooklyn,  Boston,  Lynn,  Pittsburgh, 
Buffalo  and  Wilkesbarre. 

There  remains  a third  way  in  which  the  contamination  of 
a water  supply  may  be  detected,  which  consists  in  a sanitary 
survey,  or  at  least  an  inspection,  of  the  gathering  area.  In- 
deed, in  all  surface  supplies  a vigilant  oversight  of  possible 
sources  of  contamination  should  be  'regularly  maintained. 
Where  the  area  drained  is  of  great  extent  this  may  be  limited 
to  a careful  examination  of  premises  within  a few  miles  of  the 
reservoir  or  intake  and  a knowledge  of  the  character  of  the 
drainage  area — whether  cultivated,  wooded,  rocky  and  hilly, 
or  otherwise — the  population  and  the  general  features  of  the 
sewerage  systems  of  towns  draining  thereto.  Although  a 
water  once  contaminated  cannot  be  considered  safe  even  after 
flowing  a great  many  miles,  yet  the  further  the  source  of  con- 
tamina-tion  the  less  the  danger : first,  because  in  almost  all  nat- 
ural streams  the  effect  of  dilution  will  be  to  decrease  the  pro- 
portion of  impurities ; secondly,  organic  matters  will,  by  natural 
processes  become  mineralized  and  pathogenic  bacteria  die  out, 
and  thirdly,  because  by  the  sedimentation  that  is  going  on  more 
or  less  at  all  times  organic  matter  is  entrained  with  the  rest 
and  carried  to  the  bottom. 

Baumeister  has  determined  the  impurities  received  by  sewers 
(in  Europe)  to  vary  from  4.2  to  8.1,  averaging  6.7,  ounces  per 
capita,  about  half  of  which  is  from  human  sources ; and  in  order 
to  compare  the  probable  conditions  of  streams  into  which  sys- 
tems of  sewers  discharge  he  has  deduced  a formula  for  what  he 
terms  its  “coefficient  of  pollution,”  which  in  English  measures 
may  be  expressed  as  follows : 


Let  E = the  population  on  area  drained 

C = proportion  of  population  tributary  to  sewers. 

Q = discharge  of  stream  in  cubic  feet  per  twenty-four  hours. 
V = mean  velocity  of  stream  in  feet  per  second. 

P = coefficient  of  pollution. 

O V 


Then  P 


E(i+C) 


310 


Allen: 


[J.  F.  L, 


He  has  used  this  in  arriving  at  the  relative  pollution  of  vari- 
ous European  rivers  and  various  points  in  the  same  river. 

Careful  investigations  have  been  made  on  the  sanitary  condi- 
tion of  watersheds  now  utilized  for  the  supplies  of  Boston,  Xew 
York,  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburgh.  In  that  of  the  Delaware 
watershed  made  by  Mr.  Rudolph  Hering  under  the  administra- 
tion of  Col.  Ludlow,  twenty  years  ago,  a map  was  prepared 
containing  a red  dot  for  every  looo  persons,  which  illustrated 
in  a very  graphic  w^ay  the  relative  density  of  population  found 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Schuylkill  and  Lehigh  Rivers  as  compared 
with  those  found  on  the  area  draining  to  the  Upper  Delaware. 

The  following  are  the  results  obtained  in  several  instances : 

Total  Area  Sq.  Mi.  Popula’n  per  Sq.  Mi. 


Ohio  River(Cincinn: 

ati)  1898 

75,700 

4.56 

Croton  River 

1904 

338.8 

52 

Monongahela  “ 

1900 

7,600 

24 

Allegheny  “ 

1900 

11,400 

24 

Nashua  “ 

1894 

118 

58* 

Mahoning  Cr.,  (Youngstown,  O) 

967 

77 

As  already  stated,  the  character  of  a drainage  area  and  that 
of  the  stream  itself  have  great  influence  on  the  amount  and 
character  of  its  pollution.  In  a general'  way,  however,  it  may 
be  said  that  where  the  population  exceeds  300  per  square  mile 
the  water  wdll  be  so  contaminated  that  the  supply  will  not  be 
satisfactory,t  while,  with  a population  exceeding  125  per  sq. 
mile,  the  water  is  open  to  suspicion.** 

In  the  absence  of  available  records  of  population  we  may 
assume  for  every  o.  i part  per  million  of  chlorine  above  the  nor- 
mal, a population  of  twenty-one  persons  per  square  mile  of 
watershed! — a relation  calculated  some  years  ago  by  ^Ir.  F.  P 
Stearns,  now  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  Board 
of  Boston. 

The  intimate  relation  between  density  of  population  and 
typhoid  fever  has  been  shown  very  clearly  and  graphically  with 
reference  to  the  Hudson  River,  by  Messrs.  Burr,  Hering  and 
Freeman  in  their  recent  report  on  a future  supply  for  Xew 


*Excliisive  of  site  of  proposed  reservoir. 
fRep.  Mass.  State  Board  of  Health,  1890. 

**Dr.  S.  W.  Williston  in  Rep.  Conn.  State  Board  of  Health. 
^Examination  of  Water  Supplies  Mass.  St.  Board  of  Health,  1890. 


October,  1905.]  Sanitary  Protection  of  Water  Supplies-  31 1 

York  by  plotting  the  total  population  and  deaths  from  typhoid 
as  positive  and  negative  ordinates,  respectively,  with  corres- 
ponding abscissas  in  miles.  The  typhoid  mortality  on  the 
drainage  area  is,  therefore,  an  important  factor  in  the  contam- 
ination to  be  expected  in  a stream. 

In  a sanitary  survey  note  should  be  taken  of  the  character 
and  volume  of  trade  wastes,  as  from  tanneries,  wool  and  dye 
works,  breweries,  sugar  refineries,  paper  mills,  etc. ; of  the 
drainage  from  barn  yards,  cesspools,  fertilized  lands  and 
swamps ; especially  in  the  vicinity  of  the  intake. 

In  some  cases  deterioration  of  a supply  is  caused  by  deposits 
of  organic  matter — sludge,  sawdust,  etc. — in  the  bed  of  the 
stream  or  reservoir  from  which  it  is  drawn.  But  such  de- 
posits, the  inspector  should  remember,  are  not  always  cumula- 
tive, decomposition  tending  to  balance  the  increment,  so  that  a 
stable  condition  of  such  deposit  is  no  proof  that  deposition  is 
not  constantly  taking  place.  Several  centuries  ago  the 
Thames  was  so  clogged  in  this  way  that  large  vessels  were  un- 
able to  reach  the  city  of  London. 

The  investigations  of  Dr.  George  W.  Soper  of  the  possible 
sources  of  contamination  of  the  Ithaca  supply  during  the  epi- 
demic of  1903  is  of  interest  in  this  connection  as  illustrating  the 
grossly  unsanitary  conditions  that  can  exist  on  the  very  out- 
skirts of  a University  town  of  above  the  average  character,  im- 
perilling the  lives  of  the  inhabitants.  Of  some  14,000  inhab- 
itants 1350  were  taken  sick  and  (S2  died  within  about  three 
months.  In  repeated  cases  privies  were  noted  draining  di- 
rectly to  the  water  supply  of  the  city.  Had  these  premises 
been  under  competent  inspection  possibly  the  Water  Company 
would  have  more  fully  realized  in  advance  the  terrible  risks 
being  taken. 

The  three  chief  sources  of  information  from  which  we  may 
form  an  intelligent  opinion  of  a water  supply  are,  then : 

1.  The  typhoid  rate  among  consumers. 

2.  Examination  of  the  water  itself. 

3.  Inspection  of  the  watershed  with  reference  to  possible 
sources  of  pollution. 

The  first  of  these  should  always  be  watched,  the  second 
should  be  applied  at  such  regular  intervals  as  appear  desirable, 
and  the  third  is  of  especial  value  in  cases  where  possible  sources 


312 


Allen: 


[J.  F.I., 


of  pollution — especially  those  of  a temporary  nature — may  ex- 
ist within  several  miles  of  the  reservoir  or  intake.  With  full 
information  from  these  three  sources  those  in  authority  will  be 
enabled  to  intelligently  select  and  apply  such  measures  to 
remedy  the  situation  as  are  proper. 

THE  REMEDY  FOR  UNSANITARY  CONDITIONS. 

Corrective  treatment  in  the  case  of  a polluted  water  supply 
may  be  applied  by  the  individual  consumer.  He  may  attach  a 
Pasteur  or  Berkefeld  filter  to  his  faucet,  which,  if  carefully  at- 
tended to,  will  remove  unwelcome  bacteria.  He  may  boil  or 
distill  the  water,  which  is  safer  yet,  and  then,  by  adding  drops 
of  muriatic  acid  diluted  to  lo  per  cent,  strength  and  two  grains 
bicarbonate  of  soda  to  each  gallon,  make  it  again  palatable.  Or, 
finally,  he  may  sterilize  it  by  contact  with  copper — a very  sim- 
ple remedy  recently  described  by  Prof.  Henry  Kraemer  in  the 
American  Journal  of  Pharmacy,  consisting  merely  in  the  im- 
mersion in  the  water  of  a piece  of  copper  foil  about  3^  inches 
square  to  each  quart  tobe  purified  for  from  six  to  eight  hours.* 

Prophylactic  measures  left  to  the  option  of  the  individual  are 
always  evaded  by  a large  proportion  of  those  most  in  need  of 
them  and  are  impracticable  to  enforce.  The  remedy  must  be 
applied  on  a large  scale — to  the  water  supply  as  a whole.  In 
the  remedy,  as  in  the  detection  of  unsanitary  conditions,  there 
are  three  general  courses  that  may  be  pursued,  viz. : 

1.  The  prevention  of  pollution. 

2.  The  adoption  of  a pure  source  of  water  supply. 

3.  Purification  of  an  inferior  supply. 

The  question  of  stream  pollution  is  becoming*  a very  pressing 
one  in  the  thickly  settled  parts  of  this  country  as  it*  has  been 
for  some  time  abroad.  It  is  one  requiring  broad  and  judicial 
treatment.  The  questions  of  a legal  and  scientific  nature  that 
are  involved  cannot  be  safely  left  to  popular  opinion,  even  if 
free  from  bias.  Experience  would  seem  to  indicate  that  re- 
sponsibility in  the  preparation  and  enactment  of  laws  and  in 
their  execution  should  be  vested  in  a competent  board  or  com- 


*Sterilization  after  infection  has  taken  place  has  been  tried  successfully 
by  Dr.  J,  E.  Woodbridge  b}'  the  administration  of  specific  medicines  and  is 
of  much  interest  but  hardly  pertinent  to  this  discussion. 


October,  1905-]  Sanitary  Protection  of  Water  Supplies-  313 

mission,  but  there  is  considerable  diversity  in  the  ways  by 
which  it  is  sought  to  control  the  pollution  of  water  supplies  in 
different  states.  This  is,  and  should  be,  undertaken  by  those 
directly  in  charge  of  water  works  without  dependence  on  out- 
side aid.  Every  corporation  supplying  water  to  a community 
should  satisfy  itself  as  to  its  original  quality  and  take  meas- 
ures to  avoid  any  subsequent  deterioration  that  may  occur. 

In  the  application  of  such  measures  not  only  sewage  but 
storm  water  effluents  should  be  diverted  from  the  supply.  The 
anomaly  may  be  noted  that,  while  the  activity  of  its  contained 
bacteria  tends  to  purify  water  percolating  to  lower  strata  the 
percolation  of  a good  water  through  a considerable  distance  of 
the  top  soil  may  cause  its  deterioration,  and  that  long  contact 
with  surface  moulds,  as  in  overflowed  swamps,  is  liable  to  injure 
a water ; so  that  in  constructing  reservoirs  the  top  soil  is  often 
removed  at  considerable  expense ; that  very  shallow  reservoirs, 
exposing  a large  surface  to  both  the  underlying  soil  and  the 
heating  effect  of  the  sun,  are  to  be  avoided,  while  very  deep 
reservoirs  are  also  objectionable,  as  the  deeper  portions  cannot 
avail  of  the  sunlight  and  air  for  their  purification. 

If  the  area  is  not  too  great  a regular  patrol  of  the  watershed 
and  examination  of  samples  should  be  maintained,  as  is  done  in 
Brooklyn,  Providence  and  Baltimore. 

Unfortunately  there  are  water  works  where  these  matters, 
not  being  compulsory,  are  neglected.  In  this  case  the  value  of 
a competent  Health  Board  becomes  apparent,  having  power  to 
formulate  and  execute  such  measures,  however  drastic,  as  are 
required  for  the  public  safety. 

There  is  a very  great  diversity  in  the  composition  and  au- 
thority granted  health  officials  in  this  country,  and  much  legis- 
lation governing  these  matters  is  antiquated.  In  spite  of 
marked  diff'erences  the  State  Boards  of  Health  of  Massa- 
chusetts, Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey  and  Ohio  may 
perhaps  be  selected  as  those  taking  the  lead  to-day  in  securing 
effective  results.  In  Massachusetts,  New  York  and  Ohio  the 
local  authorities  are  required  to  consult  with  and  may  receive 
advice  from  the  State  Board,  while  in  the  latter,  at  least,  such 
advice  may  be  mandatory.  In  the  above  States  and  New  Jer- 
sey and  Connecticut  the  Board  is  expected  to  investigate  all 
new  supplies  and  in  the  case  of  Ohio  this  is  mandatory. 


314 


Allen: 


[J.  F.  I., 


It  is  believed  that  in  minor  matters  the  local  health  officers, 
or,  at  most,  these  and  the  water  works  officials  by  cooperation, 
will  be  able  to  secure  proper  conditions  if  given  adequate  au- 
thority. But  in  matters  so  vitally  related  as  the  sanitary  condi- 
tions on  a watershed  and  the  health  of  a city’s  population  there 
should  be  some  central  authority  in  control  of  both;  and  this 
generally  takes  the  form  of  a State  Board  of  Health,  which,  as 
has  been  remarked,  has  proven  very  satisfactory  in  several 
States. 

In  those  cases  where  a supply  is  taken  from  a stream  head- 
ing in  or  flowing  to  another  State,  new  complications  arise, 
and  so  serious  may  these  become  that  a great  city  like  Xew 
York  is  forced  to  abandon  as  a source  of  supply  the  one  recom- 
mended by  Mr.  John  R.  Freeman)  as  that  having  the  greatest 
advantages — Ten-Mile  River  in  Connecticut — from  fear  of 
legislation. 

The  following  opinion  rendered  on  this  point  by  the  Com- 
mittee on  Legislation  to  the  Engineering  Committee  of  the 
Merchants’  Association  of  New  York  in  their  comprehensive 
investigation  of  the  question  about  five  years  ago  is  of  inter- 
est :* 

‘Tn  our  opinion  the  City  of  New  York  has  no  right  to  divert 
the  flow  of  the  Ten-Mile  River  from  the  State  of  Connecticut, 
nor  to  divert  the  flow  of  the  Rampo  River  from  the  State  of 
New  Jersey,  and  in  case  of  such  diversion  of  the  Ten-iMile 
River  a lower  riparian  owner  on  the  river  in  Connecticut  could 
enjoin  the  proposed  diversion  in  an  action  either  in  the  United 
States  Courts  or  in  the  Courts  of  New  York  State.” 

Also,  “We  are  of  opinion  that  the  City  of  New  York  cannot 
acquire  any  power  of  preserving  drainage  basins  from  pollution 
in  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  except  by  purchase.” 

It  is  a question  whether  the  difficulties  in  the  case  might  not 
have  been  overcome  by  compensation  to  riparian  owners  or 
else  resort  to  the  Federal  Courts  if  a strong  sentiment  in  favor 
of  this  plan  had  existed  among  those  in  authority. 

Nevertheless  this  suggests  the  desirability  of  providing  in- 
terstate regulation  in  order  that  an  important  city  may  avail 
itself,  if  necessary,  of  far-lying  water  supplies,  though  naturally 


*The  Water  Supply  of  New  York,  1900,  pp.  452,  476. 


October,  1905.]  Sanitary  Protection  of  Water  Supplies-  3^5 

tributary  to  other  nearby  towns  without  resort  to  litigation. 
The  inadequacy  of  artificial  political  boundaries  is  to  a certain 
extent  recognized  in  Great  Britain,  where  officials  in  control  of 
matters  pertaining  to  stream  pollution  are  given  jurisdiction 
over  certain  drainage  areas  instead  of  a county  or  other  arbi- 
trary area.  In  the  matter  of  water  supplies  this  plan  may  in 
certain  cases  fail  to  be  quite  perfect  because  areas  draining  to 
surface  streams  and  those  draining  to  underground  supplies 
may  be  far  from  identical.  In  a general  way,  however,  juris- 
diction extending  over  drainage  areas  would  appear  most  feasi- 
ble and  desirable ; and  in  order  to  adjust  questions  arising 
where  this  area  lies  in  two  or  more  States  it  is  evident  that,  un- 
less unconstitutional,  general  control  should  be  vested  in  some 
central  authority. 

In  discussing  this  matter  Mr.  J.  S.  Haring  has  said  :*  ‘The 
only  way  to  make  the  purification  of  water  supplies  effective  is 
to  first  prevent,  by  Federal  laws,  the  pollution  of  rivers  and 
streams.  Too  many  of  our  rivers  are  in  the  jurisdiction  of 
more  than  one  state  to  make  the  state  control  of  these  matters 
effective.  * * * Only  a general  law,  irrespective  of  State 

or  city,  can  prevent  effectually  what  will  be  in  a few  years,  if  it 
is  not  in  some  places  already,  an  evil  of  great  magnitude.” 

Interstate  legislation  would  fail  to  overcome  difficulties 
promptly  and  without  friction. 

It  is  suggested  that,  inasmuch  as  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey 
contains  a most  efficient  body  of  engineers,  who  have  already 
done  a large  amount  of  valuable  work  in  studies  pertaining  to 
hydrology,  stream  flow,  stream  pollution  and  artesian  well  sup- 
plies, and  is  now  taking  up  extensive  constructive  work  in  con- 
nection with  irrigation,  it  would  provide  admirably  the  cen- 
tral authority  sought;  while  interstate  disputes  could  be  re- 
ferred by  the  Survey  to  the  Federal  courts,  and  matters  con- 
cerning local  pollution  left,  as  at  present,  to  state  or  local 
boards  of  health. 

For  the  application  of  such  a system  of  control  some  plan 
such  as  the  following,  suggested  several  years  ago,t  might  be 
adopted.  This  provided : 


*Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Dec.,  1899. 
tTrans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Dec.,  1899. 


3i6  Allen:  [J- F.  I., 

First,  that  all  streams  should  be  classified  according  to  their 
permissible  contamination  as  follows : 

Class  L Streams  far  from  populous  centers  and  not  likely  to 
be  used  for  manufacturing  or  domestic  purposes. 

Class’  II.  Streams  likely  to  be  used  for  other  than  domestic 
purposes. 

Class  III.  Streams  likely  to  be  used  for  domestic  purposes. 

And  second,  a responsible  officer  should  then  be  selected 
who  should  supervise  and  control  all  sources  of  pollution 
throughout  the  drainage  area  of  every  stream  in  which  pollu- 
tion is  restricted  by  law. 

The  Survey  or  the  officer  in  charge  should,  according  to  some 
well-considered  plan,  fix  the  limits  of  contamination  in  each 
case.  It  should  also  act  as  referee  in  questions  relating  to  the 
appropriation  of  water  supplies  by  different  municipalities  so  as 
to  secure  the  most  efficient  and  equitable  -results,  including 
those  relating  to  the  rights  to  underground  supplies. 

For  condemnation  of  water  rights  lying  outside  the  district 
in  which  the  town  or  corporation  seeking  it  is  located,  power 
would  have  to  be  obtained  from  the  central  authority. 

The  present  Royal  Commission  on  Sewage  Disposal  has  had 
this  question  of  the  rights  to  natural  supplies  referred  to  it,  and 
has  suggested  placing  all  necessary  powers  with  proposed 
Rivers  Boards,  each  Board  to  have  jurisdiction  over  a group  of 
drainage  areas. 

It  may  be  said  here  that  Speaker  Nixon  of  the  New  York 
State  Assembly  has  recently  proposed  a plan  quite  similar  to 
that  mentioned,  allotting  certain  definite  areas  to  each  city  in 
its  search  for  water ; while  Governor  Higgins  suggests  a State 
Commission  to  have  jurisdiction  over  all  water  supplies,  their 
apportionment  and  protection. 

Whether  power  is  vested  in  a special  commission,  a Health 
Board,  or  otherwise,  it  should  be  granted  ample  authority  with 
funds  to  enable  it  to  carry  out  its  provisions  effectively.  It 
should  be  brought  into  close  relations  with  its  local  agents,  and 
these,  in  turn,  should  cooperate  so  as  to  secure  the  best  results. 

Referring  to  this  State,  which  has  suffered  in  the  past  from 
typhoid  in  both  epidemic  and  endemic  form,  the  Engineering 
News  says  “to  put  matters  plainly  . (Pennsylvania)  is  well 
known  among  sanitarians  to  be  notably  backward  in  all  mat- 


October,  1905.]  Sanitary  Protection  of  Water  Siipphies.  317 

ters  concerning  the  protection  of  the  public  health”  and  this  is 
attributed,  not  to  the  character  of  its  officers,  but  to  want  of 
liberality  in'  the  legislature  in  granting  adequate  power  to  the 
State  Board  of  Health,  to  local  authorities  and  to  water  com- 
panies.* 

According  to  Dr.  Chapin,  of  Providence,  it  is  desirable  that 
the  township  should  constitute  the  unit  of  sanitary  control; 
that  where,  is  in  New  England  and  Ohio,  the  township  is  well 
developed  sanitary  control  is  most  successful ; but  that  where 
this  is  weak — more  dependent  upon  the  county  organization — 
as  in  Pennsylvania  and  the  South — sanitary  control  is  apt  to  be 
feeble  and  ineffective. 

As  to  the  personnel  of  the  controlling  body  I quite  agree  with 
Prof.  Sedgwick,  who  says:  “The  appointment  of  an  engineer  of 
distinction  to  membership  in  the  State  Board  of  Health  (of 
Massachusetts)  * * * 1886  marked  a new  epoch  in  san- 

itary administration  and  has  been  followed  by  the  happiest  re- 
sults. Other  States  have  since  followed  the  example  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  with  uniform  advantage.  * * * A good  board 

of  health  should  be  very  carefully  chosen,  should  include  in  its 
membership  one  or  more  expert  physician,  at  least  one  good 
engineer,  and  one  good  business  man.  Nothing  less  will 
answer  for  any  progressive  city  in  which  health  and  decency  are 
rated  at  their  full  value.” 

A reasonable  control  over  the  pollution  of  natural  water  sup- 
plies may  be  secured  by/  invoking  the  common  law,  but  statu- 
tory legislation  is  necessary  to  ensure  purity  sufficient  for  do- 
mestic purposes.  Some  of  the  more  usual  and  important  statu- 
tory laws  prohibit  the  direct  fouling  of  a supply  by  excrementi- 
cious  or  other  decomposing  organic  matter,  the  discharge 
therein  of  sewage  or  other  foul  liquors,  presence  of  privies, 
stables,  manure  heaps,  cemeteries,  etc.,  within  a certain  dis- 
tance of  the  shore,  or  bathing  in  the  waters  of  a stream  or  lake 
used  for  a wacer  supply.  Thorough  disinfection  of  all  dis- 
charges from  those  suffering  from  typhoid  on  the  watershed 
should  be  required.  Lack  of  this  simple  measure  is  no  doubt 
the  cause  not  only  of  much  typhoid  derived  from  drinking 
water,  but  of  a considerable  dissemination  of  the  disease  by 

*The  State  Board  of  Health  has,  since  writing  this,  been  reorganized' 
with  enlarged  power,  promising  effective  results  in  the  future. 


Allen  : 


[J.  F.  L, 


318 

means  of  flies  and  dust  in  the  rural  districts;  and  each  addi- 
tional case  there  is  an  additional  menace  to  the  water  supply. 

Quite  as  important  but  more  difficult  to  control  is  the  dis- 
semination of  typhoid  by  those  who  have  the  disease  in  so  light 
a form  that  they  are  not  confined  to  bed,  by  the  many  cases 
that  are  not  recognized  as  typhoid  or  are  incorrectly  diagnosed, 
and  by  convalescents  who  may  unconsciously  continue  to 
spread  the  germs  for  many  weeks  after  recovery.* 

Attention  should  be  directed  to  the  water  served  in  railroad 
trains.  Unfortunately  many  towns  are  supplied  with  water 
that  is  positively  dangerous  to  use.  If  the  tanks  in  a train  are 
filled  in  such  a town  travelers  over  many  miles  of  territory  may 
unwittingly  place  their  lives  in  jeopardy  by  drinking  it,  and  if 
sickness  ensues  the  cause  may  never  be  suspected. 

To  provide  the  greatest  protection  to  surface  supplies  some 
cities  have  gone  so  far  as  to  buy  up  entire  watersheds  at  great 
cost.  In  England,  Manchester  has  secured  11,000  acres  in  this 
way,  Liverpool  has  obtained  authority  to  buy  22,000  acres  and 
Birmingham  45,000.  In  Scotland,  Glasgow  has  secured  an 
agreement  from  the  landowners  that  on  20,000  acres  no  leases* 
shall  be  made  for  building  purposes,  while  nearer  at  home,.  Bal- 
timore has  been  considering  the  question  of  acquiring  the 
watershed  of  its  supply  from  the  Gunpowder  River. 

But  aside  from  legislative  control  much  may  be  done  by 
those  in  charge  of  water  supplies  by  securing  possession  of  and 
fencing  in  marginal  areas  of  streams  and  reservoirs;  diverting 
or  even  purifying  storm  water  effluents  (which  are  sometimes 
very  foul),  by  providing  and  maintaining  a suitable  depth  in 
reservoirs,  by  removing  vegetation  from  the  water  and  its 
shores,  draining  swamps  on  the  watershed,  removing  muddy 
deposits  from  the  bottom  and  by  providing  ample  storage. 

Surface  waters  undergo  a marked  improvement  in  storage 
under  proper  conditions,  as  impurities  settle  out  and  bacteria — 
especially  pathogenic  bacteria — diminish  rapidly  in  number. 
As  an  illustration  examinations  of  the  Croton  supply  have 
shown  an  average  reduction  in  bacteria  in  passing  through  the 
Central  Park  reservoirs  of  45  per  cent.,  while  a further  reduc- 


*172  million  germs  per  c.c.  have  been  found  in  the  urine  of  a typhoid  con- 
valescent. See  Petruschky  in  Centralblatt  fur  Bakteriologie,  1898. 


October,  1905.]  Sanitary  Protection  of  Water  Supplies.  319 

tion  of  29  per  cent,  takes  place  in  the  mains  before  reaching 
City  Hall  Square.  The  reduction  found  in  the  numbers  of 
Bacilli  Coli  was  even  more  marked.* 

To  prevent  pollution,  then  we  should  seek  the  aid  of  the 
State  through  legislation  and  Boards  of  Health  and  those  in 
direct  charge  of  water  supplies  should  take  such  measures  as 
will  not  only  prevent  deterioration  of  such  water  after  taken 
over  into  their  hands,  but,  if  possible,  improve  its  quality. 

With  increasing  density  of  population  it  becomes  imprac- 
ticable to  avoid  such  contamination  of  surface  supplies  that 
they  are  unfit  for  domestic  purposes.  At  such  a time  a stream 
of  Class  HI  (as  proposed)  would  be  placed  in  Class  H,  and 
towns  depending  thereon  for  a supply  would  be  forced  to  one 
of  two  courses  of  action — either  to  seek  some  new  and  unpol- 
luted source  or  to  adopt  some  method  of  purifying  the  exist- 
ing source ; and  it  is  believed  that  the  time  will  come  when  all 
large  cities  will  be  forced  to  accept  one  of  these  alternatives. 
Consequently  the  development  of  ground  water  supplies  will  be 
more  actively  and  scientifically  carried  out  than  heretofore. 
Already  they  are  utilized  to  a considerable  extent  along  the 
coastal  plain  between  New  York  and  Florida  and  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley.  The  difficulty  of  securing  an  artesian  supply  in- 
creases rapidly  with  its  extent  so  that,  although  Brooklyn,  Cam- 
den, Savannah,  Galveston,  Memphis  and  other  towns  obtain  a 
great  part  of  their  supply  in  this  way,  it  is  in  smaller  towns  that 
we  find  its  greatest  development.  Serious  objections  sometimes 
met  with  are  excess  of  iron,  requiring  its  removal,  as  at  Red 
Bank,  N.  J. ; excess  of  soda,  which  discolors  starch  so  that  the 
water  is  unsuitable  for  culinary  and  laundry  purposes,  as  at 
Charleston ; excess  of  carbonic  acid,  by  which  lead  service  pipes 
are  attacked,  making  tin-lined  pipe  necessary,  as  at  Atlantic 
City,  and  a decrease  in  capacity  frequently  occurring  from  the 
clogging  of  the  strainers.  These  may  all  be  of  so  serious  a na- 
ture as  to  render  recourse  to  a distant  surface  supply  prefer- 
able. 

London  proposes  a water  supply  from  Wales,  and  Liverpool, 
Manchester,  Glasgow,  Boston  and  New  York  have  gone  many 
miles  to  secure  satisfactory  surface  supplies. 


*Rep.  of  Com.  on  Add’l  Water  Supply,  1904,  p.  380. 


320 


A lien : 


[J.  F.  I., 


A pure  natural  source  is  always  to  be  desired,  but  failing  in 
these  there  remains  the  possibility  of  purifying  a polluted  sup- 
ply, usually  by  filtration.  Within  the  last  fifteen  years  filtra- 
tion has  been  placed  on  a correct  scientific  basis  and  is  gener- 
ally accepted  as  safe  and  satisfactory  if  only  the  works  are  prop- 
erly designed  and  operated. 

While  Europe  has  taken  the  lead  in  the  introduction  of  filtra- 
tion, we  have  probably  surpassed  her  in  excellence  of  design  in 
our  most  recent  works,  and  in  magnitude  those  of  Philadelphia 
will  head  the  world’s  list.  The  adoption  of  filtration  by  Albany, 
Jersey  City,  Philadelphia,  Pittsburgh,  New  Orleans  and  Louis- 
ville would  be  a sufficient  guarantee  of  its  efficiency  if  its  re- 
sults in  reducing  typhoid  were  not  already  known. 

As  alternatives  there  are  boiling,  distillation,  deration,  sedi- 
mentation, treatment  with  ozone  and  with  sulphate  of  copper. 
The  first  two  of  these  are  not  applicable  to  a city’s  supply  on 
account  of  cost.  Either  sedimentation  seriation — at  one  time 
in  use  here  for  the  Schuylkill  water — may  improve  the  appear- 
ance and  taste,  but  will  not  make  a polluted  water  safe.  There 
are  several  ozone  processes,  one  of  which  has  been  in  use  by 
the  city  of  New  York  in,  sterilizing  sewage  efffuents  on  one  or 
two  of  the  Croton  watersheds  for  a number  of  years.  It  is 
believed  to  do  this  effectively,  but  that  its  applicability  in 
any  given  case  will  depend  on  the  cost. 

The  very  simple  and  inexpensive  method  of  sterilization  by 
the  use  of  copper  sulphate,  suggested  by  ^Messrs.  iMoore  and 
Kellerman,  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  applied  with 
success  at  Baltimore  and  elsewhere  appears  to  be  of  particular 
value  when  used  judiciously  to, remove  contamination  of  a tem- 
porary character — either  for  offensive  algae  or  bacterial  impur- 
ity. Its  effects  are  marked  and  rapid.  Dr. ’^loore  cites  a 
case*  where  “a  spring,  which  was  accidentally  polluted,  and 
which  gave  rise  to  over  fifty  cases  of  typhoid  in  less  than  a 
week  (in  which)  the  use  of  copper  sulphate  completely  sterilized 
the  water,  and  it  was  possible  to  continue  using  the  spring 
within  five  hours.” 

One  part  to  ten  thousand  parts  of  water,  it  is  said,  will  de- 
stroy typhoid  and  cholera  organisms  in  three  to  four  hours. 


Eng.  News,  Feb.  9,  1905. 


321 


October,  Sanitary  Protection  of  Water  Supplies. 


while  one  part  in  two  million  is  generally  sufficient.  A1  ai  e 
destroyed  by  one  part  of  the  salt  dissolved  in  from  100,000 
parts  of  water  in  the  case  of  Beggiatoa  to  twenty-five  million 
parts  in  the  case  of  Spirogyra. 

Some  very  noteworthy  results  were  obtained  from  its  use  in 
the  polluted  water  of  the  Scioto  River,  supplying  Columbus, 
Ohio. 

Previous  to  treatment  the  colon  bacillus  was  rarely  absent 
from  the  water.  From  August  19th  till  December  30th,  1904, 
daily  tests  showed  the  samples  to  be  free  from  this  organism. 
January  5th,  owing  to  alarm  caused  by  the  newspapers,  treat- 
ment was  discontinued.  The  consequent  result  as  shown  by 
the  following  tabular  statement  is  strong  testimony  to  the 
value  of  this  method  of  treatment — at  least  as  a temporary  ex- 
pedient— for  the  sterilization  of  an  infected  water:* 


June, Water  not  treated  24 

July, “ “ '■  33 

August “ treated  after  the  19th  52 

September, “ “ 16 

October, “ “ 16 

November, “ “ 8 

December, “ “ 4t 

January, “ not  treated  after  the  5th  91 

February, “ “ 376 

To  March  27, “ “ 279 

So  far,  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  has  failed  to 


recommend  this  method  for  general  application,  probably 
through  fear  that  by  carelessness  so  large  an  amount  of  copper 
might  be  used  as  to  be  prejudicial  to  health,  and  for  this  reason 
it  has  been  recently  unfavorably  reported  in  connection  with 
the  supply  of  New  York  City.| 

To  decide  whether  to  adopt  a new  supply  or  to  improve  the 


*Copper  as  an  Algicide  and  Disinfectant  in  Water  Supplies,  Bulletin  76, 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1905. 

fSeventeen  cases  reported,  but  only  four  used  city  water. 

More  recent  investigations  indicate  limits  to  the  efficiency  of  this  treat- 
ment, depending  on  temperature,  quality  of  water,  etc.  K.  A. 

$‘‘If  this  process  be  carefully  conducted  such  growths  (of  algae)  may  be 
safely  prevented  in  this  way,  but  this  Commission  is  decidedly  opposed  to 
the  use  of  copper  sulphate  in  the  Croton  supply,  because,  remaining  in  the 
water,  if  carelessly  introduced,  it  might  endanger  the  health  of  consumers. 
The  report  of  Messrs.  Hazen  and  Whipple  contains  similar  conclusions. 

Report  on  Filtering  the  Croton  Water.  Burr-Hering-Freeman,  January 
i6th,  1905. 


322 


Allen  : 


[J.  F.  I., 


present  one  is  often  a serious  question,  and  one  that  usually  re- 
quires the  services  of  the  expert  engineer.  If  the  present  source 
is  not  seriously  contaminated,  and  if  an  artesian  supply  is  avail- 
able, there  is  the  choice  between  purification  of  the  former,  the 
development  of  a ground  water  supply  or  of  securing  a new  sur- 
face supply.  Either  may  be  entirely  satisfactory  as  to  quality, 
and  it  is  probable  that  a comparative  estimate  will  eliminate 
one  or  possibly  two  from  the  question.  While  a surface  supply 
may  be  said  to  be  always  in  need  of  inspection,  this  is-no  less  of 
a filter  plant ; and  although  artesian  wells  be  considered  the 
safest  of  all,  yet  these  have  been  known  to  receive  serious  pol- 
lution by  hidden  channels  tapping  contaminated  surface  water. 
It  is  noticable  that  while  English  towns  generally  depend  on 
protected  surface  supplies,  in  Germany  filtration  is  general  and 
in  France  there  is  a marked  tendency  to  secure  underground 
supplies.  We  cannot  always  secure  the  ideal  supply  but  must 
do  the  best  under  existing  circumstances. 

It  may  be  said  that  no  amount  of  dilution  will  make  a stream 
once  contaminated  absolutely  safe  for  drinking  purposes ; but 
we  must  bear  in  mind  that  all  surface  supplies  are  open  to  this 
criticism  and,  while  the  trend  of  public  opinion  is  setting 
strongly  toward  filtered  or  underground  supplies  it  will  neces- 
sarily be  many  years  before  we  can  hope  even  to  approximate 
such  ideal  conditions.  We  should,  however,  throw  such  safe- 
guards about  our  surface  supplies  as  will  ensure  the  greatest 
practicable  protection.  In  striving  toward  our  ideals  it  is  wise 
to  consider  the  cost -of  each  and  then  secure  the  greatest  possi- 
ble good  with  our  available  funds,  leaving  if  necessary  their  ab- 
solute fulfillment  to  future  generations.  In  the  meantime  we 
need  not  allow  our  ideals  to  fade  or  be  lowered.  While  placing 
matters  of  greatest  moment  on  a monetary  basis — if  you  will — 
this  way  of  securing  the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number 
is,  after  all,  both  the  scientific  one  and  good  common  sense; 
and  if  a town  with  but  $10,000  to  spare  can  save  more  lives  by 
providing  a pest  house  or  by  introducing  sewers  than  by  per- 
fecting its  water  supply,  I would  say  build  the  pest  house  or 
sewers  first  by  all  means,  and  defer  the  desired  improvements 
to  the  water  supply.  It  is  a business  question — a matter  of 
estimate. 


( )ctober,  \go=.  | 


Notes  and  Comments. 


323 


DISCUSSION. 

Dr.  Henry  Leffmann  : — The  many  difficult  problems  that 
confront  the  municipal  hydraulic  eng-ineers  have  been  so  well 
presented  in  the  paper  that  further  discussion  is  unnecessary. 
I desire  to  express  strongly  my  approval  of  the  author’s  en- 
dorsement of  the  value  of  chemical  analysis  of  water  intended 
for  drinking  purposes.  When,  about  a quarter  of  a century 
ago,  bacteriology  took  a sudden  lurch  into  prominence,  it  was 
claimed  that  it  would  set  aside  chemical  analysis.  Koch  said 
that  such  analysis  is  mere  ethics.  Naturally,  it  was  thought 
that  water-borne  diseases  are  most  likely  to  be  due  to  minute 
organisms,  the  detection  of  which  would  be  possible  and  suffi- 
cient. It  soon  appeared,  however,  that  these  organisms  are 
very  elusive,  and,  after  many  mistakes  and  some  untruthful- 
ness, bacteriologists  are  prepared  to  admit  that  the  most  im- 
portant water-borne  disease  germ,  that  of  typhoid  fever,  is 
practically  not  discoverable  in  ordinary  waters.  For  the  val- 
uation of  well  and  spring  waters,  chemical  analysis  is  still  essen- 
tial. The  data,  chlorine,  nitrates  and  nitrites  give  us  infor- 
mation as  to  where  the  water  has  been  and  how  long  ago, 
points  of  great  sanitary  moment.  I have  long  regarded  the 
analysis,  bacteriologic  or  chemical,  of  surface  waters  as  of  little 
practical  value.  It  seems  that  each  community  must  learn  the 
lesson  for  itself,  that  unfiltered  surface  water  that  has  been  col- 
lected or  has  flowed  through  even  a sparsely-settled  district,  is 
unfit  for  drinking  purposes.  In  discussing  the  biology  of  the 
typhoid  bacillus,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  researches 
are  made  with  organisms  that  have  been  obtained  from  human 
viscera  or  discharges  and  not  from  water.  I think  that  great 
caution  should  be  observed  in  applying  the  biologic  data  ob- 
tained in  this  way  to  practical  problems  in  water  sanitation. 


ARTIFICIAL  SILK. 

In  the  Consular  Reports  issued  by  the  Department  of  State  there  has 
recently  appeared  an  interesting  note  on  the  production  of  artificial  silk 
by  Mr.  Richard  Guenther,  Consul-General  at  Frankfort,  Germany,  from 
which  the  following  extract  is  made: 

“For  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  efforts  have  been  made  to 
find  a cheap  substitute  for  genuine  silk.  At  last  cellulose  has  been  found  to 
be  suitable  fdr  producing  brilliant  threads  of  silk-like  appearance.  The  best 


324 


Notes  and  Cofuments 


[J.  F.  I., 


kind  for  the  purpose  is  carded  cotton,  which  was  used  by  Count  Hilairede 
Chardonnet,  the  first  manufacturer  of  large  quantities  of  artificial  silk. 

German  chemists,  among  them  Dr.  Lehner,  of  xA.ugsburg,  also  have 
■solved  the  problem  of  making  artificial  silk.  The  chief  difference  between 
the  processes  of  Chardonnet  and  Lehner  is  that  the  collodion  from  which 
the  product  is  made  is  of  a different  character,  and  that  in  the  process  of 
Chardonnet  the  collodion  is  spun  dry.  Dr.  Lehner  spins  his  collodion  wet 
and  then  lets  it  dry. 

The  associated  factories  of  artificial  silk  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  com- 
prising two  factories  in  Germany  and  two  in  Switzerland,  which  have  a com- 
munity of  interest  with  the  Chardonnet  factory  at  Besancon,  in  France,  use 
the  process  of  Chardonnet  and  Lehner.  There  is  also  a company  at  Elber- 
feld  under  the  name  ‘Vereinigte  Glanzstoff-Fabriken  in  Elberfeld/  which 
•owns  several  factories  in  Germany  and  uses  the  processes  of  Dr.  H.  Pauly, 
Dr.  M.  Fernery,  J.  Urban,  and  Dr.  E.  Bronnert.  The  last  process  differs 
from  the  other  decidedly.  Cellulose  is  dissolved  in  ammoniated  oxide  of 
copper  and  is  then  directly  separated  from  this  solution  by  means  of  an  acid 
in  the  form  of  threads. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  a conclusion  as  to  how  far  artificial  silk  can  replace 
natural  silk  in  the  manufacture  of  silk  goods,  it  is  necessary  to  compare 
the  physical  and  chemical  qualities  of  the  natural  and  artificial  product. 
Under  the  microscope  all  artificial  silks  differ  from  the  natural  in  their 
greater  thicknesses.  Tussah  silk  alone  resembles  artificial  silk.  Artificial 
silks,  without  exception,  possess  the  quality  of  at  once  distending  largely 
in  water,  which  increases  their  thickness  one-third  to  one-half,  while  natural 
silk  does  not  distend  perceptibly.  This  distending  seems  to  be  the  reason 
that  artificial  silk,  in  a wet  state,  loses  so  much  in  firmness.  The  artificial 
silk  manufactured  by  the  two  associations  named  shows  qualities  which 
come  very  close  to  those  of  natural  silk  and  excels  it  in  some  respects. 

The  product  is  of  an  even  white  color,  of  a silky  touch,  and  when 
pressed  together  has  even  some  of  the  characteristic  crackle  of  genuine  silk, 
the  so-called  silky  cry.  It  greatly  excels  natural  silk  in  brilliancy.  The 
chief  use  of  artificial  silk  is  in  the  passementerie  industry.  For  passe- 
menterie goods  and  for  trimmings  it  has  proven  so  suitable  that  for  such 
purposes  it  is  even  preferred  to  natural  silk.  For  embroidering  it  is  the 
ideal  material;  its  high  luster  and  adaptability  to  the  form  of  the  embroid- 
ery add  a most  brilliant  look  to  such  work.  In  the  manufacture  of  straw 
hats  artificial  silk  takes  the  place  of  straw.  The  hats  made  of  it  excel  the 
ordinary  straw  hats  in  brilliancy.  A separate  branch  is  that  of  imitating  hu- 
man hair,  called  ‘meteor,’  made  of  artificial  silk.  Such  imitation  hair  is  as 
soft  as  the  natural  growth  and  cannot  be  distinguished  from  it;  it  is,  further- 
more, cleaner  and  cheaper.  The  price  of  natural  human  hair  is  often 
twenty-five  times  as  high  as  the  artificial  article,  besides  the  latter  is  not  as 
heavy  as  the  former.  Artificial  silk  finds  to-day  an  increasing  market  even 
in  the  silk-producing  countries.” 


October,  1905.] 


Book  Notices. 


325 


Book  Notices. 


Die  Darsicllung  dcs  Zinks  auf  elektrolytischem  Wege.  Von.  Dr.-ing.  Emil 
Guenther,  Hiietten-Ingenieur,  Aachen.  ]\Iit  59  in  den  Text  gedruckten 
Abbildungen.  (8  vo.  pp.  xii  A 243).  Halle  a.  S.  Driick  und  Verlag  von 
Wilhelm  Knapp.  1904.  (Price,  10  marks.) 

The  foregoing  volume  constitutes  the  sixteenth  of  the  series  of  Mono- 
graphs of  Applied  Electricity  issued  by  this  publisher,  nearly  all  of  which 
have  received  notice  in  the  Journal. 

The  profitable  production  of  electrolytic  zinc  has  thus  far  proven  to  be  a 
most  troublesome  problem  to  solve,  and  much  more  study  and  experiment 
will  be  required  before  it  is  satisfactorily  solved.  This  volume  here  noticed 
will  be  found  most  useful  in  giving  the  investigating  reader  a complete  re- 
sume of  the  processes  thus  far  proposed  for  the  solution  of  the  zinc  prob- 
lem, and  of  the  results  actually  accomplished.  The  profitable  solution  of 
this  problem  would  be  one  of  the  most  important  economic  achievements  in 
the  field  of  metallurgy.  W. 


PUBLICATIONS  RECEIVED. 

Hydrology  of  the  State  of  New  York.  By  George  F.  Rafter  (New  York  State 
Museum,  John  M.  Clarke,  Director.  Bulletin  85.  Economic  Geology 
12.)  Albany:  New  York  State  Education  Dept.  1905.  8vo.,  pp.  902. 

(Price,  $1.50.) 

Locomotive  Testing  Plant  at  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition,  St.  Louis, 
Mo.  1904.  (Penna.  Railroad  Co.) 

Schiff  and  IVasser.  J.  F.  Becker,  Schiffbauteschnisches  Bureau,  Hamburg. 
1905. 

Report  of  a Fire,  Sand  and  Water  Test  made  upon  a 20x22  foot  span,  hollow 
tile,  grooved  arch  floor,  constructed  by  the  National  Fireproof  Company 
at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  By  Ira  H.  Woolson,  M.  E.  (Price,  25  cts.) 

Renold  Roller  Chain.  Booklet  No.  54,  1905.  Link  Belt  Engineering  Co., 
Philadelphia  12  pages,  illustrations,  8vo. 

Armour  Institute  of  Technology  Year  Book  for  igo5-igo6.  Chicago,  Armour 
Institute  of  Technology  Press,  1905.  195  pages,  portrait,  plan,  8vo. 

Geological  Survey  of  Kentucky,  Charles  J.  Norwood,  Director.  Bulletin  No. 
I.  Preliminary  part.  The  Oil  and  Gas  Sands  of  Kentucky,  by  J.  B. 
Holing,  Lexington,  Survey  1904.  233  pages,  illustrations  plates,  maps, 

quarto. 

Proceedings  of  the  Nineteenth  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Conference  of  State  and 
Provincial  Boards  of  Health  of  North  America,  Washington,  D.  C.,  June 
3 and  4,  1904.  Providence:  Snow  & Farnham,  1904.  78  pages,  8vo. 

School  of  Industrial  Art  of  the  Pennsylvania  Museum.  Circular  of  the  School 
of  Applied  Art.  Twenty-ninth  season,  1905-6,  Philadelphia.  56  pages, 
8vo. 


326  Proceedings—  Committee  on  Science  and  the  Arts.  [J-  F.  I., 

Concrete  Steel.  A treatise  on  the  theory  and  practice  of  reinforced  concrete 
construction.  By  W.  Noble  Twelvetrees.  With  numerous  illustra- 
tions, designs  and  tables.  8 vo.  pp.  xii,  218.  Whittaker  & Co.,  London 
and  New  York.  1905.  (Price,  6 shillings.) 

The  use  of  reinforced  concrete  has,  within  recent  years,  worked  some- 
thing of  a revolution  in  engineering  construction.  This  development  has 
received  its  most  active  and  successful  impulse  in  this  country,  and  it  is 
accordingly  a notable  circumstance  that  one  of  the  few  contributions  relat- 
ing to  the  subject  should  come  to  us  from  the  press  of  an  English  publisher. 

' W. 

Franklin  Institute. 


(Abstract  of  Proceedings  of  the  Stated  Meeting  held  Wednesday,  September 

20th,  1905.) 

Hall  of  the  Franklin  Institute, 

Philadelphia,  September  20th,  1905. 

President  John  Berkinbine  in  the  chair. 

Present,  43  members  and  visitors. 

Additions  to  membership  since  last  report,  13. 

Mr.  Lindon  W.  Bates,  of  New  York,  described  and  illustrated  with  the 
aid  of  models  several  modifications  of  the  present  plans  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Panama  Canal,  for  which  he  claimed  special  advantages.  (The 
communication  will  appear  in  the  Journal.) 

Mr.  Andrew  Wright  Crawford  and  Mr.  Frank  Miles  Day,  representing 
the  organizations  allied  for  the  acquisition  of  a comprehensive  park  system 
for  Philadelphia,  presented  some  interesting  data  with  lantern  photographs, 
exhibiting  the  present  status  of  the  work. 

The  President  expressed  the  thanks  of  the  meeting  to  the  speakers  ol 
the  evening,  and  adjourned  the  meeting. 

Wm.  H.  Wahl,  Secretary. 


Committee  on  Science  and  the  Arts* 

(Abstract  of  Proceedings  of  the  Stated  Meeting  held  Wednesday,  September 

6th,  1905.) 

Mr.  Samuel  Sartain  in  the  chair. 

Present,  nine  members. 

The  following  reports  were  presented  and  passed  first  reading: 

(No.  2339.)  The  Walter  Szvitch.  Dr.  B.  W'alter. 

(No.  2366.)  Piiel  Saving  Piirnace  and  Method.  The  Fuel  Saving  Co., 
Utica,  N.  Y. 

These  reports  were  held  under  advisement  until  the  next  stated  meeting. 

The  resignation  of  Mr.  Daniel  Eppelsheimer.  Jr.,  as  a member  of  the 
Cimmittee,  was  ])resented  and  accepted,  with  a vote  of  regret. 

On  motion  of  Mr.  L.  E.  Levy,  the  Chairman  was  authorized  to  appoint 
a special  committee  to  prepare  a memorial  of  the  late  John  Carbutt,  one- 
time member  of  the  Committee. 


W^i.  H.  Wahl,  Secretary. 


Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute — Advertisements.  ix 

WE  ARE  OFFERING 

A LIMITED  NUMBER  OF  SETS  OF  A 

Special  3 Vol.  Edition 

Handsomely  Bound  in  Half  florocco,  Cloth,  Marbled,  for 

$ I 5 Net  (F-  O.  B.  N.  Y.) 
SPON’S  ENCYCLOP/BDIA 

—OF  THE— 

Industrial  Arts,  Manufactures 
and  Products 

EDITED  BY 

Q.  Q.  ANDRE,  F,  Q.  S.,  Asso=IVl.  Inst.  C.  E. 

AND 

C.  Q.  WARNFORD  LOCK,  F.L.S.,  F.Q.S.,  M.I.M.M. 

Assisted  by  many  prominent  flanufacturers.  Chemists  and  Scientists 


The  encyclopaedia  is  written  by  practical  men  for  practical  men. 

Razv  Materials  form  perhaps  its  most  important  feature  and  are  dealt  with 
in  a way  never  before  attempted. 

Manufacturers  are  discussed  in  detail  from  the  manufacturing  standpoint 
by  manufacturers  of  acknowledged  reputation. 

Special  consideration  is  given  to  the  utilization  of  waste,  the  prevention 
of  nuisance,  and  the  question  of  adulterations. 

Technicalities  are  explained,  and  bibliographies  (English^  American, 
French,  German,  etc.),  are  appended  to  the  principal  articles. 

Over  2,000  pages  and  nearly  2,000  illustrations. 


A full  descriptive  circular  can  be  had  on  application.  Address 

SPON  & CHAMBERLAIN 

Publishers  of  Standard  Engineering  Books 
123=125  LIBERTY  STREET  - NEW  YORK 


X 


Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute — Advertisements. 


Dodg'e  Conveyor 

(Patented) 

consists  of  non-overlapping  gravity 
buckets  pivoted  between  chains, 
and  smaller  rigid  buckets  secured 
to  the  chains  and  extending  be- 
neath the  gaps  which  separate  the 
gravity  buckets, 

The  leakage  through  clearance 
spaces  between  the  pivoted  buck- 
ets is  caught  by  each  rigid  bucket 
and  delivered  into  the  gravity 
bucket  next  following. 

The  Dodge  Conveyor  is  cleanly 
in  operation,  simple,  safe,  practi. 
cal  and  durable. 

The  Link-Belt  Engineering  Co. 

PHILADELPHIA 

NEW  YORK  : PITTSBURGH  : 

49  Dev  Street  Park  Building 

CHICAGO: 

The  Link-Belt  Machinery  Co. 


INDICES 

BEEN  PUBLISHED  OP 

...SUBJECT-MATTER  AND  AUTHORS... 

THE  FRANKLIN  JOURNAL 

KND  THE 

JOURNAL?^ FRANKLIN  INSTITUTE 

PROTUt 

JANUARY,  1 826,  to  DECEMBER,  1885 

price:,  $5.00 

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price:,  $1.50 

Address 

Actuary  of  the  Franklin  Institute, 

15  South  Seventh  Street,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  U.  S.  A. 


Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute — Advertisements.  xi 


Thorough  Inspections 

And  Insurance  against  I,oss  or  Damage 
to  Property,  and  I,oss  of  Dife  and 
Injury  to  Persons  caused  by 

Steam  Boiler  Explosions 

T.  M.  AldKN,  President. 

Wm.  B.  Frankdin,  Vice-President. 
F.  B,  Adden,  2d  Vice-President. 
J.  B.  Pierce,  Secretary. 

I . B.  Brainerd,  Treasurer. 
L.  F.  Midddebrook,  Ass’t  Sec’y 


Schutte  8t  Koerting  Co. 

1 2th  and  Thompson  Streets,  Philadelphia 

WATER  JET 
EDUCTOR-CONDENSER 

As  applied  to  Engines  and  Turbines  Its 
operation  is  independent  of  the  work  of 
the  effgine.  It  maintains  its  vacuum  all 
the  time,  whether  load  is  heavy  or  light. 

ASK  FOR  CATALOGUES 

INJECTORS,  BLOWERS,  SYPHONS, 
AIR  COMPRESSORS  AND  EXHAUSTERS 
VALVES  AND  ADJUSTABLE  CON- 
DENSERS, ETC. 


CYRUS  BORGNER.  successor  ro 


Xll 


Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute — Advertisements. 


The  Tabor  Mfg.  Co. 

18th  and  Hamilton  Sts. 


Cuts  easily  a.  .35  Carbon  Forging  9 PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 
ins.  by  14  ins.  in  17  minutes.  ' 

The  Tay  or-Newbold  Saw  street,  ch.cago  in 


Inserted  Cutters  treated  by 
the  Taylor- White  process, 
under  exclusive  rights.  30 
cutters  in  36  ins.  Saw  may 
be  changed  in  12  minutes. 

A set  of  Cutters  hardly 
dulled  in  tw^o  weeks’  con- 
tinuous cutting  night  and 
day. 


!£  MOOBE  il  WHITE  CO. 

PHILADELPHIA  PA.,  U.  S.  A. 


BCJIL-DCRS  OR 

R3per=making  Mschinery 

Friction  Clutch  Pulleys 

Cut=off  Couplings,  Etc. 


PHlLA'DELPH  rAl  ' 

MAN  GAN  ES E B R O N Z E, 
::^/;5:pH‘0SPHOR  b rctnze;  ■?■; 
^^cAND;  BAB  B IT#  M ETAtS  . 

..O?  c i.Brass';and  Phosphor  Bronz^e  Casfings  ;v ; : 

- from  y^lbL.To  10000  lbs.  in' vyreighT. 


Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute — Advertisements. 


xiii 


Morse,  Williams  & Co. 

Philadelphia 

EhEVflTORS 

BRKNOHES: 

NEW  VORK  RITTSBURO 

NEW  HT^IZEN  B7^:i-TI7V^ORE 
BOSTON  MTL-KNTJq: 

J.  E.  LONERGAN  c£  CO. 

No.  211  AfiCH  STREET,  PHILADELPHIA 

Manufacturers  of 

Patent  Oilers,  Lubricators  & Pop  Salety  Valves 

Railroad,  Maclilnlsts’,  Mill  Supplies 
and  Brass  Castings 

Catalogue  free  oil  application 

TESTING  MACHINES 

HYDRAULIC  PRESSES 

We  are  always  prepared  to  make  tests  of 
all  kinds 

TIN  I US  OLSEN  <&  CO. 

500  NORTH  TWELFTH  STREET,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

WASHING  AND  TESTING  BOILERS  WITH  HOT  WATER 

INJECTORS  AND  JET  APPARATUS 

Rvie  M’f’^  Co.,  PKiladelphia,  Pa. 

SCIENTIFIC  INSTRUMENT  MAKER 

EXPERIMENTAL  MACHINE  WORK 

Model  Makiug  a Specialty.  Automatic  Machinery  Designed,  Built  and 
Repaired,  Punches,  Dies  a-id  Special  Tools 

CHARLES  J.  WESTON,  512  Vine  street,  Philadelphia 


XIV 


Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute — Advertisements. 


1844 


For  sixty-one  years  THE  LIVING  AGE  (established  by 
E.  Littell)  has  held  a unique  place  in  the  magazine  world.  More 
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tinental periodicals. 

To-day,  more  valuable  than  ever,  the  one  American  magazine 
presenting  weekly,  without  abridgment,  the  principal  features  of 
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would  keep  abreast  of  the  best  European  thought  of  the  day.” — Spring- 
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Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute — Advertisements. 


XV 


....THE.. . 


Broad  and  Arch  Streets 

PHILADELPHIA 


OFFICERS: 

THOMAS  DOLAN,  President. 

SAMUEL  T.  BODINE,  Vice-President  and  General  Manager. 
RANDAL  MORGAN,  2d  Vice-President  and  Gen’l  Counsel. 
WALTON  CLARK,  3d  Vice-President. 

LEWIS  LILLIE,  4th  Vice-President  and  Treasurer. 

W.  F.  DOUTHIRT,  Secretary. 


DIRECTORS: 


'GEORGE  PHILLER, 
WILLIAM  W.  GIBBS, 
RANDAL  MORGAN, 


SAMUEL  R.  SHIPLEY, 
C.  A.  GRISCOM, 

' S.  T.  BODINE. 


BUILDERS,  LESSEES  AND  PURCHASERS  OF 


...GAS  WORKS... 


XVI 


Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute — Advertisements. 


FRED’K  A.  GENTH,  jR. 

Consulting:  and  Analytical  Chemist 

222  WALNUT  ST.,  PHILA. 

TESTING  OF  FIRE  BRICK 

FIRE  SANDS  CLAYS 

KARL  LANGENBECK, 

THOS,  PRAY,  Jr. 

P.  O.  Box  2809,  BOvSTON,  MASS. 

CONSULTING,  CONSTRUCTING 
AND  EXPERT  ENGINEER 

Examinations,  Tests  and  Reports  on 
Steam,  Water  and  Electric  Power 

COLEMAN  SELLERS,  E.  0. 

M.  Inst.  C.  E.,  M.  Inst.  M.  E..  M.  Am.  Soc. 

C.  E.,  &c. 

CONSULTING  ENGINEER 

OFFICE 

Stephen  Girard  Building,  Philadelphia 

SAMUEL  P.  SADTLER,  Ph.D. 

Late  Profe.ssor  of  Organic  and  Industrial 
Chemistr5'  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

Consulting  Clieinical  Kxpert 

In  all  Branches-of  Chemistry  as  Ap- 
plied to  THE  Arts  of  Manufactures. 
Chemical  Studies  of  New  Processes  and 
Technical  Products;  Reports  made  in  connec- 
tion with  Patent  Applications  and  Testimony 
Prepared  in  Chemical  Patent  Suits. 

N.  E.  Cor.  lOth  & Chestnut  Sts.,  Phila. 

Space  like  this  on  this  page,*  $12.00 
per  year,  payable  cn  receipt  of  copy 
of  Jourtial  containing  first  insertion 
of  adver. 

L.  F.  RONDINELLA,  M.  E. 

CONSULTIIiG  ENGINEER 

728  STEPHEN  GIRARD  BUILDING 

IStli  street,  above  Cliestnut,  Pblla. 

Procured  for  luven- 
1 AA  I 1 u so'i  designs. 

■ ■ tailV  ■ W Trade-marks  Regis- 

tered, Patent  Causes,  Examinations  Searches 
etc.  Call  or  send  for  Book  of  lustruction.c. 

V/IEDERSHEIM  & FAIRBANKS 

John  A.  Wiedersheim  DeLong  Building 

Wm.  Caner  Wiedersheim  . 

H.  Hayward  Fairbanks  1232  Chestnut 

SAMUEL  SARTAIN 

Engfraver  on  Steel;  Portraits,  Etc. 

212  N.  19th  St.,  Philadelphia. 

FAIRCHILD  & GILCHRIST 

Civil  and  Mining  Engineers 
General  Engineering,  Rapid  Stadia  Survej’s, 
Reports  on  Mining  Properties 

Fraukliii  Bldg.,  133  S.  l‘4tli  St.,  Phila. 

Space  like  this  ou  this  page,  $6.00 
per  year,  payable  on  receipt  of  copy 
of  Journal  containing  first  insertion 
of  adver. 

Riehle  Bros.  Testing:  Machine  Co. 

Engineers,  Founders,  Machinists 

1444  N.  9tli  St.,  Plillaclelphla,  Pa. 

Telephone  Connection.  Cable,  "Riehle.” 

Correspondence  Solicited  from  Parties  de- 
siring the  Latest  Improved  United  States 
Standard  Testing  Machinery  and  Appliances 
of  all  varieties  and  capacities. 

Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute — Advertisements.  xvii 


I84O  Standard  of  Excelleyice  1905 

HENRY!  ITROEMNER’S 

Assay  and  Analyatical  ! 

Balances  and  Weights 

FOR  ALL  SCIENTIFIC  USES 

Used  by  the  Government  of  United 
States,  Canada,  Mexico  and  China. 

PRICE-LIST  ON  APPLICATION 

HENRY  TROEMNER 


No.  911  Arch  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  U.  S.  A. 


TIRES  STEEL  TIRED  WHEELS 


SOLID  FORGED  ROLLED  WHEELS 

FORGINGS  CASTINGS  SPRINGS 

THE  STANDARD  STEEL  WORKS 


HARRISON  BUILDING  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

The  Williams  New  Model 

Improved  Enlarged 

A Writing  Machine  Made  to  Meet  the 
Requirements  of  tuese  Modern  Times 

STRICTLY  VISIBLE  WRITING 
DIRECT  INKING 

PRINTS  LIKE  A PRESS 

STANDARD  TYPEWRITER 
EXCHANGE 

General  Agents 

1022  Arch  Street,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


SPECfALisTS  IN  Factory  Building 

WILLIAM  STEELE  & SONS 
CONTRACTORS  and  BUILDERS 
1600  Arch  Street 

Telephone  Connections  PHILADELPHIA 


No.e 


xviii  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute — Advertisements. 

THE  JOHN  SCOTT 

Cegacy  IDedal  and  Preminm 

The  City  of  Philadelphia  holds  in  trust  under  the  legacy  of 

JoKn  Scott,  of  E-dinbur^K 

t 

a sum  of  money,  the  interest  of  which  is  to  be  used  for  the  encour- 
agement of  “ingenious  men  and  women  who  make  useful  inven- 
tions.” The  legacy  provides  for  the  distribution  of  a Medal, 
inscribed 


“TO  THE  MOST  DESERVING,” 

and  Money  Premium  in  the  sum  of  $20  to  such  ..persons  whose 
inventions  shall  merit  the  same.  The  examination  of  the  inven- 
tions submitted  for  the  Medal  and  Premium  has  been  delegated  by 
the  Board  of  City  Trusts,  of  the  City  of  Philadelphia,  to  the 
Franklin  Institute,  and  the  Institute,  under  the  competent  as- 
sistance of  its 

Committee  on  Science  and  the  Arts 

undertakes  to  make  the  investigations  free  of  charge  and  to  rec- 
ommend for  the  award  all  meritorious  inventions. 

Application  should  be  addressed  to  the 

SECRETARY  OF  THE  FRANKLIN  INSTITUTE, 

from  whom  all  information  relative  thereto  may  be  obtained. 
Pursuant  to  the  regulations  for  the  award  of  the 

John  Scott  Legacy  and  Medal  Premium 

THE  FRANKLIN  INSTITUTE,  OF  THE  STATE  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


has  under  consideration  favorable  reports  upon  accompanying  ap- 
plications. Any  objection  to  the  proposed  awards,  or  evidence  of 
want  of  originality  of  the  invention,  may  be  communicated  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  Institute  within  three  months  of  the  date  of 
notice. 


COCHRANE  FEEDWATER  HEATERS 

There  are  more  than  enough  Cochrane  Heaters  in 
present  service  to  equip  looo  H.  P.  plants  at  every 
mile  post  between  New  York  and  San  Francisco. 

We  could  not  have  sold  .so  many  “Cochranes”  but 
for  the  fact  that  these  appliances  have  been  ap* 
proved,  adopted  and  recommended  by  the  leading 
consulting  and  mechanical  engineers  and  the  lead- 
ing steam  users,  who  use  them  because  these  heaters 
give  the  desired  results. 

HARRISON  SAFETY  BOILER  WORK^ 

3142  NortU  ITtli  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Gold  Medal  Louisianna  Purchase  Exposition 


HARRISBURG  ENGINES 

6 TO  3,000  HORSE  POWER 
HIGH  SPEED,  MEDIUM  SPEED 
AND  CORLISS 

Harrisburg  Foundry  and  Machine  Works 

HARRISBURG,  PA. 

The  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum 

DR.  WILLIAM  P.  WILSON.  Director 


Supplies  DETAILED,  SPECIFIC  INFORMATION  concerning  the 
TRADE  CONDITIONS  of  the  WORLD’S  MARKETS. 

It  tells  WHERE  THE  MARKETS  ARE  and  by  whom  supplied. 

Who  the  RESPONSIBLE  BUYERS  ARE,  and  HOW  TO  REACH 
THEM. 

It  can  ascertain  FOR  YOU  the  particular  REQUIREMENTS  of  any 
or  all  the  markets  in  THE  LINE  OF  GOODS  YOU  MAKE. 

It  has  inaugurated  a most  valuable  method  of  REGISTERING  AMERI- 
CAN BUSINESS  HOUSES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES  by  means  of  Card 
Index  Files  placed  in  the  CHAMBERS  OF  COMMERCE  in  FORTY-FIVE 
of  the  PRINCIPAL  COMMERCIAL  CENTERS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

This  is  a movement  in  the  Interest  of  American  Commerce  with  which 
YOU  SHOULD  BE  IDENTIFIED. 


Write  for  particulars  to 

THE  PHILADELPHIA  COMMERCIAL  MUSEUM 

233  SOUTH  F=iOURTH  STREET,  F=HIL-7=CDEL.RHIK 


Established  1828 


Incorporated  1876 


I.  P.  MORRIS  CO. 

Port  Richmond  Iron  Works 


PH  I LAD  EILPH I A 


Manufacturers  of 


Machinery,  Boilers  and  Tanks 

Heavy  Machinery  a Specialty 

BLACK  DIAMOND  FILE  WORKS 


Twelve  Medals 
Awarded 
at  International 
Expositions 


Special  Prize 

Gold  Medal 

at  Atlanta,  Ga. 
1895 


G.  & H.  BARNETT  CO.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

See  our  exhibit  in  the  Bourse,  Fifth  near  Market  St.,  Philadelphia 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


Copy  of  Catalogue  will  be  seut  free  to  any  interested  file  user  upon  application 


